Peter N. Herdon
A. The Renaissance
The introductory lesson will be an attempt to bridge the gap between life in the Middle Ages and life in what we today call the “Renaissance.” Emphasis here will focus on the institutions that dominated the Middle Ages, the feudal manors and the Church. Four slides will be shown to students to illustrate the contrasting nature of the times:
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relief of Adam and Eve after the Fall (“Bronze Doors of Bishop Bernward” at Hildesheim Cathedral, Janson, p. 207) which pictures the Lord pointing an accusing finger at a cringing Adam, who passes the blame to his mate, while she, in turn passes it to the serpent at her feet. Both figures of Adam and Eve are shamefully trying to cover themselves with fig leaves;
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photograph of the interior of a Gothic Cathedral (“View of the North Clerestroy Wall of the Nave, Chartres Cathedral,” Janson, p. 237) featuring beautiful stained glass windows, butressed vaults, and delicate vertical columns giving an uplifting heavenward appeal;
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painting of serfs working the land in front of a walled castle (“October” from “Les Tres Riches Heures du Duc de Berry,” Janson, p. 257) illustrating in full color the planting of a winter crop by peasants, with nobility and monks visible before the castle wall;
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equestrian statue of a Verona ruler in full armor (“Statue of Can Grande della Scala,” Janson, p. 263) portraying a selfconfident, grinning picture of power and victory—a knight in shining armor?
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After viewing the slides, the teacher will ask students to discuss the slides in light of the question from Psalm eight: “What is man that Thou are mindful of him?” What can be said about man as he approaches the end of one era and the dawning of another?
Historian Kenneth Clark put it this way: “At the end of the tenth century in Europe. . . Man is no longer the
image
of a man, but a human being, with humanity’s impulses and fears; also humanity’s moral sense and the belief in a higher power.” (Clark, p. 31)
Students next will be asked to read an assignment from their text (Beers, pp. 213, 215) which highlights the plagues, wars and Church divisions which caused a desire for reform and a return to security and prosperity.
For the next four or five days, we will look at “Man’s Search for Meaning” in the Italian Renaissance. The students will have read a textbook account (Beers, pp. 281284) summarizing the factors which promoted Italy’s leadership in the change from medieval to modern civilization. Students will be expected to identify two or three of these factors. Students in this lesson will read different selections by three “successful” Renaissance individuals and report back to their classmates how each of these men defines “success.” Is this definition of success similar in any way to the old feudalchivalric values? One reading selection will be from Baldassare Castiglione’s
The Courtier
, which brings out the old chivalry but also knowledge of classics appreciation of literature, eloquence and good taste. Another short reading from Benvenuto Cellini’s
Autobiography
, brings out an extreme individualism. A third and final reading is from Niccolo Machiavelli’s
The Prince
, and emphasizes the practical application of political principles in a cruel and corrupted world. These selections should illustrate for the students the character trait called
virtu
(from the Latin
vir
which means “free man”), the combination of qualities which made for greatness in statesmanship, artistic creation or literature. A discussion of
virtu
in its many forms and facets will conclude the lesson.
Nearly a complete day would be spent describing the “universal man” or “Renaissance man.” The individual we shall focus on is Leon Battista Alberti (14041472) and his many accomplishments as an artist, architect, poet and writer. Alberti’s statement, “A man can do all things if he will,” is worth considering as it reflects back on our earlier discussion of
virtu
, in the sense that determination combined with genius brings the desired result. Students will read from the prologue of
On Painting
in which he praises the Florentine artists for bringing great fame to the city of Florence, and citing them as even greater than the ancients. There will also be a discussion of his book
On Architecture
with the following ideas: (1) city planning approaches based on a proper analysis of conditions; (2) the relatively higher importance assigned to buildings in a city with churches first, civic and business second, and housing third. Buildings should contribute to the public, not the private good. His idea that buildings built harmoniously, according to the principles of nature, would enable a person to discover the meaning of a harmonious wellbalanced life. There is much to be discovered about Alberti and much to be discussed as he leads us into an important element of Renaissance art: the principle of reason as being necessary to artistic expression.
Alberti said:
‘And the mind, stimulated and warmed up by practice, will apply itself quickly and adroitly to the work, and that hand will follow most speedily which is well guided by the unerring insight of the mind.’ (Quoted in Panofsky, p. 273)
Alberti believed in an objective norm for beauty and this standard can be discovered through the mind of man. .
Jacob Burchkardt described Alberti (
The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy
, 1860) as a mathematician, physicist, architect, painter, sculptor and writer. He commanded expertise in so many different areas that it is impossible to put Alberti into any one category. A relevant question to ask of the Renaissance and the men who made it is: Can the currents of Renaissance culture be unified into a systematic system? Is Renaissance man, like the Renaissance itself, too complex and varied to put into definable limits?
Follow an assignment from the students’ text (Beers, pp. 282284) which introduces the basic nature of the Italian Humanists and their stress on the study of the humanities. By studying subjects taught in ancient Greek and Roman schools (grammar, rhetoric, poetry and history), Humanists believed that education was the only way to enjoy a full life. As one scholar put it:
‘I beg you, take care. Add a little every day and gather things in. Remember that these studies promise you enormous prizes both in the conduct of your life and the fame and glory of your name. . . Acquaint yourself with what pertains to life and manners—those things that are called humane studies because they perfect and adorn men.’ (Quoted in Beers, p. 283)
Based on our class discussion of Alberti and others, we observe that individual abilities were to be encouraged in a Renaissance education. How were these professional Humanists a “new breed?”
Generally they (Humanists) were laymen who made a living by their learning, not clerics or monks devoting spare time to classical study. They were selfmade men who were peddling a new type of scholarship to their contemporaries—and who found the market very good. . .(There were) eager students in Florence and elsewhere. The Humanists reveved the study of classical Latin, Greek and Hebrew, and they got the ruling classes of the Italian cities excited about what they were doing. (Strayer, p. 351)
Many Humanists combined their religious faith with their scholarship. For example, Petrarch (130474) wrote, “Christ is my God; Cicero is the prince of the language I use.”
During this class period students will read a brief selection (from Strayer, pp. 3501) by Petrarch, often called the father of a new Humanism. In this selection, he defends his love for the classical writers and his belief that they taught the central ethical values which later were expressed in Christianity. He saw no conflict between the ancient truths and God’s Truth; all truth was indivisible.
Another Humanist reading, either for class or homework is one selected from Coluccio Salutati, from “A Letter in Defense of Liberal Studies.” This assignment stresses the importance of the liberal arts as essential to the Christian, especially the studies of grammar, dialectic (logic) and rhetoric (public speaking). He summarizes his case in this way:
‘Imagine for yourself a person well grounded in the. . .literary studies; then let him enter on the study of Christian doctrine and sacred literature at the same time with another person untrained in (them). . .and which do you think would become. . . the more rapidly, or the more completely, the trained man, or the crude and ignorant one?’ (Quoted in Gundersheimer, pp. 234)
Students will be asked to evaluate the value of Humanistic education and the possible effects of this education during the Renaissance. Why was this form of education potentially valuable to the aristrocratically controlled citystates of Italy? Why did some historians call humanistic education a “revolution?” What of the Church’s influence as the focus of life seemed to come more on this world rather than on the next, and life became more secularized?
No unit on the Renaissance would be complete without an exposure to some of the great artistic achievements of Renaissance painters and sculptors. The slides I plan to show (and make available as part of this project) emphasize two main points: First, human scale. To illustrate this concept students will see two pictures of the Pazzi Chapel in Florence (interior and exterior). In contrast to the Gothic style, the human proportions and scale of this space asserts the dignity of man and makes the individual more conscious of his capabilities and powers. We also observe certain mathematical balance and geometric proportions.
The second set of slides help to show the tensions between the classical influence and the Christian art of the time.
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Boticelli’s The Birth of Venus” (Janson, Colorplate 36, p. 316) shows the influence of Greek my and bring out the themes of youth, love and beauty. The Venus image has changed into a shy pale rendering of the Virgin Mary, attempting to reconcile the pagan and the Christian in art. “Divine love” has replaced “human love,” natural birth has given way to a divine rebirth. So claimed the NeoPlatonists.
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Giorgione’s “The Tempest” (Janson, Colorplate 40, p. 371) is supposedly seen through the eyes of St. Francis as a piece of God’s creation. But the scene is naturalistic and pagan. The persons in the painting are sensuous and passive. Who are they? The only action is that of the storm soon to sweep away the beauty of the scene, a moment in time.
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Masaccio’s “St. Peter Healing the Sick” shows perspective of Renaissance buildings in a contemporary setting, uniting Christianity and community.
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Michelangelo’s “Creation of Adam” from the Sistene Chapel shows the superhuman man as he awakens to selfconsciousness. Could this be a symbol of Renaissance man himself?-(Janson, p. 360) As the Creator rushes towards the earthbound Adam to receive the “divine spark”, Adam reaches out, not only toward God, but also to a yetunborn Eve, whom he sees hidden in the clouds.
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A quotation by a contemporary historian completes this section of the unit:
Michelangelo, perhaps the most typical as well as the greatest artist of them all, gave his life to attempting the impossible: to reconciling the classical ideal of harmony, balance, and ‘nothing in excess,’ with the limitless goals and boundless love of Christian piety. This attempt to reconcile the GrecoRoman and HebraicChristian worlds was the central striving of the Renaissance. (Strayer, p. 357)
B. The Protestant Reformation
The subtitle for the second half of this curriculum unit could be called, “The Search for Meaning” or “Challenges to the Church.”
The Church in the Middle Ages assumed the role of “guardian of the faith” and officially claimed to be the conscience of Christian rulers and their subjects. This claim, however, did not go unchallenged. Early in the fourteenth century, King Philip IV of France objected to Church influence: (1302)
‘The pope pretends that we are subject to him in the temporal government of our states and that we hold the crown from the Apostolic See. . . . This kingdom which (our ancestors) have until now so wisely governed—it appears that it is not from God alone, as everyone has always believed, that we hold it, but from the pope.’ (Quoted in Strayer, p. 270)
The first challenges to Church authority came from nonconformists within the church itself such as St. Francis of Assisi (11821226) who insisted on absolute poverty for himself and his followers, imitating the example of Christ and the apostles. St. Francis narrowly escaped being labelled a heretic, but many of his followers did. A reading from George B. Shaw’s play,
St. Joan
illustrates a new threat to the monolithic Church, nationalism.
‘I can only tell you that (nationalism) is essentially anti-Catholic and antiChristian; for the Catholic Church knows only one realm, and that is the realm of Christ’s kingdom. Divide that kingdom into nations and you dethrone Christ.’ (p.99)
In 1431, at the age of nineteen, she was burned at the stake, a heretic. In 1920, she was canonized a saint. The question is an interesting one: Which of today’s heretics will become tomorrow’s heroes?
The students will read a summary of the ideas of John Wycliffe (1328-1384), who claimed the Scriptures to be the only authority, with Christ, not the Pope as the head of the universal church. He translated the Bible into the vernacular and was condemned by the archbishop of Canturbury. Wycliff’s influence was later felt in Bohemia, where John Huss led a large following and was ultimately excommunicated and condemned by the Council of Constance for refusing to yield to his conscience based on his views of Scripture and his insistence that the cup be administered to the laity at the Lord’s Supper. Huss was condemned and burned at the stake in 1415. A resulting war against Hussite followers in Bohemia lasted twenty years and proved indecisive.
Other factors leading to criticism of the Church were its decline in prestige due to the Great Schism (13781417) and the decline in power of certain European secular rulers upon whom the Church depended to enforce certain taxes and orders. Within the Church loyalty was beginning to ebb with the ideas of St. Francis who opposed the Church’s ownership of property; St. Thomas’ allowances for bringing in Aristotle’s ideas into Christian thought. Furthermore, thinkers at the University of Paris (1379) promoted the idea that the authority of the Church rested not in the papacy but in the entire body of believers and called for a Church Council to settle the matter.
Renaissance popes, as a rule, were doing nothing to increase confidence in the Church. Many were patrons of Humanism and the arts. Two were noted for their wars (Julie II was known as the “Warrior Pope”); Roderigo Borgia (Aleander VI, 14921503) lived openly with his mistresses. Aleander gave his Spanish relatives whatever they asked for, and his illegitimate son, Cesare, made a bloody attempt to become ruler of all central Italy with his father’s help. Splendor became a substitute for reform.
Finally, Pope Julius II agreed that changes were necessary and began to open dialogue for reform. Further events suggest that rising expectations during a time of crisis do very little to quench the fire of change but actually fan the flames into a larger conflagration. This dialogue was opened in the first two decades of the sixteenth century, sixty years after the humanist scholar Lorenzo Valla in 1440 had proved the Donation of Constantine to be a forgery.
To focus students’ attention on the ideas of northern humanism, we shall spend a class period describing one of its famous representatives, Desiderius Erasmus (14661536). Erasmus, like other German humanists was a sincere churchman, anxious to improve and reform Church practices and policies. He was born into poverty, became a priest in 1492 but soon left the monastery and his interest in ancient writings led him to a study of classical Greek. He studied classical literature and later translated the New Testament into Greek. By 1520, he was regarded by many to be the “prince” of humanistic scholars because of the influence and quality of his writings, many of which were based on the primary sources of ancient literature. A sample of a reading for students follows:
His thought was that education, return to the sources of Christian truth, and flagellation (Whipping) of ignorance and immorality by merciless satire would bring the church to purity. To this end he worked. His
Handbook of the Christian Soldier
(1502) was a simple straightforward presentation of an unclerical Christianity. . .His
Praise of Folly
(1509) was a biting satire on the evils of his age in church and state. His
Familiar Colloquies
of 1518 were discussions in which fastings, pilgrimages, and similar external observances were the targets of his brilliant pen. (Walker, p. 294)
He, along with many others, including Martin Luther, believed that the Church was permeated with superstition, corruption and false doctrine. He bitingly criticized the clergy and civil rulers, but had no wish to break with the Church that he often unmercifully attacked. Erasmus believed that individuals had the Godgiven right to seek reform in the Church, but in the final analysis, Christians must depend on Church Councils to decide matters of correct doctrine. The Church, ultimately, was God’s agent on earth and had to be recognized as such, regardless of the individual Christian’s dissatisfactions with its practices. There is much room for disagreement within the Church, as the following quotation by Erasmus illustrates :
‘In fact, the variety of ceremonies does not break up the peace of the Church; there are opinions on which it is possible to disagree, without the destruction of peace between Christians.’ (Quoted in Olin, et al., eds., p. 110)
To Erasmus, Christianity was essentially ethical religion and the social teachings of Christ in the Sermon on the Mount comprised its main essentials. Also, the philosophers of ancient Greece and Rome were to be considered teachers of what was good and noble and true. The historical uniqueness of Christ, so essential to Martin Luther, was absent in Erasmus as he promoted an international Christendom rather than a personal Christianity. A final selection from Erasmus’
Colloquies
underscores his admiration for Christian character traits in pagan heroes:
. . .the attitude of Socrates in the face of death is discussed. His resignation and hope, so proper to the Christian, inspires Erasmus’ interlocutor (mouthpiece) to utter these frequently quoted words: ‘I can hardly help exclaiming, “Saint Socrates, pray for us.” ‘ (Olin, ea., p. 20)
To Erasmus, the reformer, the promotion of humanist scholarship and the broadening of Christian knowledge together will improve the condition of mankind. God’s way will be revealed through knowledge that morality is a better way than immorality; good is more practical than evil; common sense is to be preferred over theological tretises. Erasmus believed it was possible to unite people of all nations under the Christian banner if reason and good will were fully exercised.
‘If we apply ourselves to the task of establishing peace in the Church with moderate advice and calm minds, that which Isaiah prophesies will take place. “And my people will set down in the beauty of peace, in the tabernacles of confidence and in opulent rest. Let us all say as we rejoice with one another—How loveable, O Lord of power, are Thy tabernacles.”’ (Quoted in Dolan, pg. 388)
The next class period, students will spend evaluating the ideas and beliefs of the Protestant Reformer, Martin Luther (14831546). Following an assigned reading from the students’ text (Beers, pp 294-296), we will summarize his views on indulgences and justification by personal faith in Jesus Christ.
In the fifteenth century, Pope Sixtus IV claimed the power to release the souls of the dead from the penance they were doing in Purgatory, if contributions called “indulgences” were made on the dead loved one’s behalf. Special indulgences had been issued beginning in 1506, for the purpose of building the new church of St. Peter in Rome. Luther was enraged by the crass sales techniques of a Dominican friar named Johann Tetzel (14701519) who is reported to have claimed, “So soon as coin in coffer rings, the soul from Purgatory springs.” As Tetzel approached Luther’s hometown of Wittenberg, Germany, Luther prepared ninetyfive theses, or propositions for academic debate on the subject of indulgences. His main points were these:
‘There is no divine authority for preaching that the soul flies out of purgatory immediately after the money clinks in the bottom of the chest. . .All those who believe themselves certain of their own salvation by means of letters of indulgences will be eternally damned, together with their teachers. . . Any Christian whatsoever, who is truly repentant, enjoys remission from penalty and guilt, and this is given him without letters of indulgence.’ (Quoted in Strayer, p. 378)
Luther’s experience as a monk had led him to reject the doctrine that good works could win a person’s salvation. Fasting, praying and confession had led him only to a deeper sense of guilt, depression, and spiritual crisis. Peace finally came after discovering what St. Paul wrote in the first chapter of the epistle of Romans: “Therefore being justified by faith, we have peace with God through our Lord Jesus Christ.” Luther’s futile efforts to satisfy God through selfjustification gave way to the belief that in the matter of saving a man’s soul, man can do nothing; God does everything. The implications of this line of thinking proved to be revolutionary. If man is saved by faith alone, then religious ceremonies and rites, even sacraments, are unnecessary and even dangerous because they imply that man can offer something to God through “good works” that would make man acceptable and worthy of salvation. Only a right personal relationship with God could satisfy Him. Therefore Luther struck at the “good work” that apparently all of Germany was ready to hear about, indulgences. The true treasury of the church, claimed Luther, was God’s forgiving grace, not a coffer of coins extracted by the pope’s agents promising something that went against the teachings of Scripture. What was Luther’s attitude at this time? Was he seeking to break with the Catholic Church and the Pope? Or was this just a protest against a public abuse? His letter to Archbishop Albrecht accompanying the famous Theses gives the answer (October, 1517):
‘I pray that you may accept this humble but faithful admonition graciously as ruler and bishop, even as I submit it with a faithful and devoted heart. For, too, I am one of your sheep. The Lord guard and guide you forever. Amen.’ (Quoted in Olin
et.al.
, eds., p. 30)
There is evidence to support the fact that Luther himself was amazed at the public response to this spark which produced the explosion which irreparably split the Christian Church into Catholic and Protestant. Written in academic language, the theses were intended to be propositions for debate, not powder for a debacle.
Charges of heresy were levelled at Luther and he was summoned to Rome to appear before the Pope, Leo X (15131521), but because of protection from his prince in Germany Elector Frederick “the Wise” the hearing at Augsburg, where, in October 1518, he was ordered to retract his views on papal authority in the matter of indulgences. Luther courageously refused. In fear of his life, friends in Augsburg smuggled him out of town.
At dead of night, a canon of the cathedral smuggled him out by a hole in the town wall; a mounted city messenger was waiting with a second horse. Just as he was, without trousers or boots, the monk got into the saddle; the messenger, who never said a word, spurred his horse, and the horse with Luther on it followed, away, away. . . . The story of Luther’s ride, trouserless, without spurs, bounced black and blue, caused much amusement in a good many circles. (Simon, pp. 169, 171)
In a famous debate in June and July of 1519, Luther admitted that the Council of Constance had made an error by condemning John Huss. He had already declared that the Pope was not the final authority in Church matters; now he apparently rejected the infallibility of Church councils. The Pope’s Bull of Condemnation was issued a year later, in June, 1520. During this year of delay, Luther’s ideas were quickly solidifying. His writings were devoted to establishing the authority of Scripture as supreme, and redefining the Christian Church and the duties of a believer toward God and his fellow man.
Students should be encouraged to ask why did Luther affect the people so radically and prove to be so popular? Part of the answer lies in the practical nature of his program for Church reform. He was proposing a formula which people had been long ready to accept. The people saw Luther as a man of great courage and personal convictions, willing to stand up for his beliefs before the awesome power of the Roman Catholic Church hierarchy. A further appeal to the people was Luther’s proclamation of the personal “good news” of forgiveness from God.
‘Is it not wonderful news to believe that salvation lies outside ourselves? I am justified and acceptable to God—even though there are in me sin, unrighteousness, and fear of death. . . . Faith is enough for the Christian. He has no need for works to be made just. But he is not therefore to be lazy or loose. Good works do not make a man good, but a good man does good works.’ (Quoted in Simon, p. 238)
Another significant idea developed by Luther was in the priesthood of the believer, which overthrew the Church’s longheld practice of an ecclesiastical superiority in spiritual matters. This meant for the people that their daily lives could be lived in a manner that was spiritual service, holy and acceptable to God. To Luther, the Christian’s life was a paradox: His freedom is predicated on his justification by faith in Christ; he is a servant because he is bound by love to serve God and neighbor while conforming to the image of Christ.
These ideas resulted in a final Papal Bull in January, 1521, and an order for Luther to appear before the Emperor Charles V for the civil authorities to hear his case. He travelled to the city of Worms in April, 1521, cheered on by large crowds of people. Would he be asked to recant his beliefs? Would he be martyred? Would the government agree to protect him as a citizen of the Holy Roman Empire? The state was set for real drama. The entire Christian world awaited the outcome.
The culminating activity of the unit is a mock trial of the Diet of Worms. The trial should prove a viable way to involve the students in one of three roles: (1) supporters of Luther and his views; (2) supporters of the Church and its views; (3) supporters of Erasmus, the middle road, and his views.
Students will be provided with Luther’s views from various sources and will spend one class period preparing in groups. A list of charges will be drawn up by the EmperorChurch group which will be distributed to the other two groups. Issues range from indulgences, papal v. Biblical authority, good deeds v. salvation by grace, etc. The broad themes to apply will be these:
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What is a fundamental belief, not subject to compromise?
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b.
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What is a nonfundamental point of belief which can (and perhaps should) be compromised?
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c.
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What is the notion of “truth” and how can it be discovered?
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When, if ever, is it right to disobey authority?
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e.
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When is silence a better strategy than using words?
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To what extent does man have a “free will?”
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g.
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What role do people have in determining their ultimate destiny?
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h.
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How important is the Bible in the life of a Christian?
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The role play, which should take one full class period, will be evaluated by students in an assignment based on three points?
a.
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How did the events of the Reformation in Germany prove inevitable?
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How was Luther a “man for his times?” Why did so many follow him even though he was branded a heretic and outlaw?
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Debate the following thesis: “Resolved, the Reformation hatched the ‘egg’ which was laid by the Renaissance.”
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As a final passage, students will consider this quotation from an historian who gives a succint evaluation of Luther and his place in history:
Martin Luther. . .is one of the few men of whom it may be said that the history of the world was profoundly altered by his work. Not an organizer or politician, he moved men by the power of a profound religious faith, resulting in unshakable trust in God, and in direct, immediate and personal relations to Him, which brought a confident salvation that left no room for the elaborate hierarchical and sacramental structures of the Middle Ages. . . . Whether honored or opposed, none can deny his pre-eminent place in the history of the church. (Walker p. 302)