Peter N. Herdon
A. Lesson One
“The Spirit of the Renaissance”
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Objectives
After completing the lesson, students should be able
1.
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To identify at least two factors which contributed to Italy’s leadership in the Renaissance;
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2.
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To tell what certain key concepts (“renaissance,” “humanities,” “classics,” “city-state”) mean;
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3.
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To give a Renaissance definition of “success” in Florence during this period.
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Lesson Procedures
1.
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Hand out Worksheet based on the students’ text, pages 281-284, which they have already been assigned as homework. They will be asked to discuss Objectives one and two above to test their grasp of the subject matter.
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2.
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Students will be then divided into groups and assigned one of three readings: one from Castiglione’s
The Courtier
; a second from Cellini’s
Autobiography
; a third from Machiavelli’s
The Prince
.
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3.
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Students will be asked to define important terms in each reading and asked the question: “How is this person an example of “success” and “virtu?” What did it take to be a “good” Florentine in the fifteenth century?
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4.
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Students from each group will report back to the entire class while the teacher summarizes the main points on the chalkboard.
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Reading Samples
(Lesson One)
A.
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The new ideal image of the Italian aristrocratgentleman was the subject of a book by Baldassare Castiglione,
The Courtier
. He had the old virtues of chivalry, plus the new virtues of humanistic Florence of 1530 when the book was published. Notice how personality qualities are described as you read about the ideal man of “virtu” according to Castiglione.
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‘. . .I judge it his first duty to know how to handle every kind of weapon, both on foot and on horse, and know the advantages of each kind. . .Apart from using them in war, there often arise differences between on gentleman and another, resulting in duels, and quite often those weapons are used which happen to be at hand. Hence, knowledge of them is a safe thing. . . .He must show courage in all things. Nor should he be quick to enter into a fight, except as his honor demands it of him. . . .
‘(Hunting) is a true pastime for great lords. . . .He should know also how to swim, jump, run, throw stones; for besides their usefulness in war, it is frequently necessary to show one’s prowess in such things, whereby a good name is to be won, especially with the crown (with whom one must reckon after all).
‘I would have him more than passably learned in letters (literature), at least in those studies which we call the humanities. Let him be versed in the poets, as well as in the orators and historians, and let him be practiced also in writing verse and prose;. . .in this way he will never want for pleasant entertainment with the ladies, who are usually fond of such things.’ (Quoted in Gundersheimer, ed., pp. 154, 155, 156, 159)
B.
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Benvenuto Cellini (150071) was a sculptor and goldsmith who described his exploits in his
Autobiography
(quoted in Strayer, p. 349) He believed that autobiography was an excellent form of expression and believed his book would be widely read since he was such an interesting person.
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‘All men of whatsoever quality they be, who have done anything of excellence,. . . .ought to describe their life with their own hand. . . . I make no profession of writing history. It is enough for me to occupy myself with my own affairs. . . .
‘After he (Paul III) had put affairs of greater consequence in order, the new Pope sent for me, saying that he did not wish any one else to strike (mint) his coins. To these words of his Holiness one of his gentlemen named Latino Juvinale (a Humanist) answered that I (Cellini) was in hiding for the murder of Pompeo of Milan, and set forth what could be argued for my justification (pardon) in the most favorable terms. The Pope replied: “I know nothing of Pompeo’s death but plenty of Benvenuto’s provocation, so let a safe-conduct be at once made out for him. A great friend of Pompeo’s was there; he was a Milanese called Ambrogio, a papal secretary. This man said: “In the first days of your papacy, it is not well to grant pardons of this kind.” The Pope answered: “You know less about such matters than I do. Know then that men like Benvenuto (Cellini), unique in their profession, stand above the law.”
C.
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Niccolo Machiavelli (14691527) was a foreign ambassador for Florence who had years of practical experience in politics, as well as having read classical writings. In his writings, he described things as they were, not as they should be. He admired the Roman system as the best historical example of an ideal government, but realized that it might be too difficult for a corrupt and divided group of Italian citystates to revive. What was needed was a prince of real “virtu” with the courage of a lion and the cunning of a fox in order to build a strong state in Italy. Fortune might make his work difficult, but a man of “virtu” should at least have a fiftyfiftychance of beating the odds. The following is from Machiavelli’s,
The Prince
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‘Is it better to be loved than feared or feared than loved? It may be answered that one should wish to be both, but it is much safer to be feared than loved when one of the two much be chosen. . . .In general (men) are ungrateful, fickle, false, cowards, covetous. As long as you succeed, they are your entirely . . .Men have fewer scruples (principles) in offending (going against) one who is beloved than one who is feared, for love is preserved by the link of obligation which. . .is broken at every opportunity, but fear preserved you by a dread of punishment that never fails.
‘You must know, then, that there are two methods of fighting, the one by law, the other by force: the first method is that of men, the second of beasts; but as the first method is often insufficient, one must have recourse to the second. It is therefore necessary for a prince to know well how to use both the beast and the man. . . .A wise ruler ought not to keep faith (honor agreements) when by so doing it would be against his interest, and when the reasons which made him bind himself no longer exist. If men were all good, this precept would not be a good one; but as they are bad, and would not observe their faith with you, so you are not bound to keep faith with them.’ (Quoted in Strayer, p. 354)
B. Lesson Two “Mock Trial: Luther at the Diet of Worms” (2 days)
Objectives
After completing the Lesson students should be able
1.
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To summarize two reasons why the Church and State wanted Luther silenced:
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2.
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To empathize to a certain extent with the different parties in this debate;
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3.
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To understand how the role of mediator works (or doesn’t work);
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4.
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To evaluate key factors in the decisionmaking process.
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Lesson Procedures
1.
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Teacher hands out a “Fact Sheet” to students, which includes necessary background information of events leading up to 1521 (previous night’s homework).
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2.
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Teacher divides up the class into three groups. One group are the “Emperors,” another are the “Lutherans,” and a third are the “Erasmians.”
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3.
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Teacher hands out separate “Role Sheets” to each group. Each “Role Sheet” has information necessary to perform in the Mock Trial accurately.
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4.
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After giving each group time to plan their strategy and to ask questions, the “Lutherans” are asked to give their testimony before the Diet, run by the “Emperors.” The “Erasmians” are expected to interject compromise suggestions when appropriate. “Emperors” may choose to ask followup questions of the “Lutherans.”
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5.
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After the Trial is over, students are expected to write out an evaluation of the Trial. Could the results have been different? If so, how? Were you happy with the results? What may happen as a result of the action taken by the “Emperors?”
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Sample Role Sheet
“The Lutherans”
Instructions
. Your group represents the ideas of Martin Luther. Study the quotations below so that you can answer questions from the other two groups, the “Emperors” and the “Erasmians.” You may also use class notes and assignments to help make your case stronger.
Issue 1
: Indulgences
a.
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“The Bible no where teaches that when a coin in the coffer rings, a soul from Purgatory springs.”
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b.
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“The sale of these indulgences is telling people they can purchase someone else’s salvation. This is a corrupt lie and must be stopped.”
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c.
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“Priests should preach the Gospel and love of Christ as Christ commanded, not preach indulgences as He did not.”
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Issue 2
: The Authority of the Bible
a.
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“The Scriptures alone are the foundation of our beliefs as Christians.”
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b.
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“I stand on the Word of God as recorded in the Bible.”
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c.
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“There is no need for bloodshed. The world will be conquired by the Word of God, and by the Word the Church will be rebuilt and reformed.”
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Issue 3
: Faith and Works
a.
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“Faith cannot be inherited or gained by being baptized into a Church. Faith is a matter between the individual and God.”
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b.
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“The truly faithful in the Church is a relatively small number, for ‘narrow is the gate and few there be that find it’’
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c.
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“Faith is from God, not from man. Man can do nothing to earn or receive it. We are right with God by faith alone.”
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Issue 4
: Church practices (Sacraments)
a.
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“The celebration of the Mass (the Lord’s Supper) is not for the clergy alone. All believers are priests; therefore, all should celebrate together.”
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b.
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“The words of the priests do not transform the bread into Christ’s body or the wine into His blood. Christ is present no matter what words are spoken or ceremonies performed.”
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c.
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“There should be no sacraments except those found in the Bible: I can find only two, the Lord’s Supper and Baptism.”
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Issue 5
: Church authority
a.
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“I will not be convinced by popes and councils but by Scripture and plain reason.”
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b.
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“I do not believe that in order to be a believing Christian you have to believe in the pope also.”
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c.
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“A simple layman armed with scripture is above any pope or Church council.”
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Issue 6
: The Papal Bull, 1520
a.
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“I was called by the Pope (Leo X) a wild boar in the vineyard of the Lord. My books were ordered to be burned. I was excommunicated without having the opportunity to defend my beliefs. Is this God’s justice?”
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b.
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“Whatever may happen, I have peace in my being. Not a leaf falls to the ground without God’s knowledge. How much less can any of us fall unless it be His will.”
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c.
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“Let them burn my books. I for my part will publicly burn and condemn the Church’s entire canon law. The faith and the Church are at stake.”
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Issue 7
: Miscellaneous Published Comments by Luther
a.
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“The Church authorities have excommunicated me for heresy, I excommunicate them in the name of the sacred truth of God. Christ will judge whose excommunication will stand.”
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b.
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“All the condemned articles of John Huss are Christian.”
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c.
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Seldom has the Pope overcome anyone with Scripture and with reason.”
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Issue 8
: Luther’s Comments on relics and courage
a.
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“What lies there are about relics! One claims to have a feather from the wing of the Angel Gabriel; one has a flame from Moses’ burning bush. And how does it happen that 18 apostles are buried in Germany when Christ had only 12?”
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b.
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“My conscience is prisoner to the Word of God. I cannot and will not recant. Here I stand. I cannot do otherwise.”
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c.
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From his famous hymn, “A Mighty Fortress is Our God”:
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“That Word they never can dismay, However much they batter. For God himself is in the fray, And nothing else can matter. Then let them take our life, Goods, honor, children, wife. We will let all go. They shall not conquer so, For God will win the battle.”