In contemporary American society, masks are often worn during festive occasions or used for decorative purposes, as wall hangings or show pieces in homes, museums, and cultural centers. In Native American and African cultures, masks were not used for mere aesthetic purposes. They instead held more meaning and significance, usually serving as part of a costume for ceremonial dance, ritualistic, spiritual and physical healing, religious teaching and/or storytelling purposes. Often but not always symmetrical in form, masks took on much symbolism. Images depicted thereon were intentionally designed, often to invoke, appease, and/or depict a great spirit and/or traditional beliefs (see YNHTI F, G, H, I, and J).
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Materials used to create Native American and African masks were closely related to the geographic locale in which they had been created. Most were of vegetative origin. The Cherokee, for example, made one type of mask from gourds (see YNHTI Resource K). Known as booger masks, they were used during a burlesque dance known as the Booger Dance. The dance served as a reenactment of the arrival of Europeans to the their native land. The maskmaker would cut off gourd necks and later use them for noses and horns. Carefully cutting two additional circular openings so the gourd necks would fit snugly therein, the maskmaker inserted the gourd necks, forming the eyes and nose segments of the mask. Using dye from natural charcoal or black walnut, the paint-like substance was carefully applied with fingers to add the finishing touches.
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In the Arctic, masks were frequently made from wood, animal fur, and walrus ivory. Sinew, gut, nails, and bird feathers served as additional adornments. Masks were used to illustrate supernatural beings and visions, the environment in which the supernatural beings resided, personal narratives, or symbolized the relationship between a ceremonial dance participant and an animal yua. Throughout most Native American cultures, birds (for the indigenous inhabitants of the North American plains, the eagle) were thought to be a link or messenger between the natural and supernatural world. Thus, it was not unusual to find bird feathers surrounding the mask.
As previously noted, the Yup’ik believed all objectsanimate and inanimatehad yuas of human form. Masks made of bone, animal skin, feathers, and fur were created to look like images of bears, wolves, and otters and were created to appease the animal spirit that was ultimately in control of animals. Some masks depicted the spirit of the physical elements that surrounded the animate or inanimate object (see YNHTI Resources L and M). The wearer was said to have taken on the characteristics of the depicted spirit. The masks, often accompanied by costume, were worn during dance ceremonies to help ensure the hunt would be fruitful.
Similarly in traditional Africa, masks were used during spiritual, ritualistic and/or ceremonial dances and ritualistic events. They comprised part of a costume and were often worn as helmets or face coverings. African masks were usually symmetrical and static. Power was implied through symbolism: elephants, crocodiles, rams, buffalo, or antelope were used to reflect this quality. Some pieces were adorned with metal inlays. Cowrie shells, stones, beads, bones, copper, silver, and gold inlays honored the mask and the entity depicted. Such adornments often connoted wealth, power, high social standing, and respect. Cowrie shells, in particular, held religious significance because of their shape, which had a feminine image. They were often used for mask ornamentation. Bead patterns connoted distinctions between tribes, and castes within a tribe. Skins, wool, feathers, ivory, teeth, horns and other types of shells constituted additional adornments. Hardwood trees, often indigenous to the home of the sculptor, were used to create masks and other wooden objects. So that woodcrafted objects could be preserved, camwood powder was used to help keep termites from attacking the wood and subsequently destroying carved figures.
As in Native American culture, natural resources such as trees were not used without asking or thanking the creator for their use. Birds, snakes, and beasts embodied human form, man and add symbolic power to the entity depicted in the mask or to the wearer him/herself. These images were often carved into the shape of the mask or were reflected in beaded and painted patterns thereon (see YNHTI Resources N and O).
Maskmaking Activities: Bringing Us Closer
Our students have taken a glimpse at the lifestyles and culture of Native American and
African people. Now, they will all have an opportunity to demonstrate their understanding of this subject matter: they will create their own masks and provide an imaginative, detailed explanation for their creation. Of course, we will be unable to work with natural resources as were used by the people we have studied. Nevertheless, our children will let their creative juices flow with our art materials and related resources.
Mask Project 1: Great Spirit Masks
Task: Pretend you are a Native American, and you are creating a mask that takes on the quality of an animal spirit. Think of an animal whose character trait is similar to a personality trait that you possess (i.e., cunning like a fox, slow like a turtle, precise like an eagle). Envision yourself creating a mask that represents that characteristic. Think of colors, shapes, designs, images that represent your feeling. Recall some of the Native American masks you have observed that reflect similar images. Keeping all of this in mind, create your mask.
Skills Focus/Content Areas: Identifying assorted shapes; identifying line design (horizontal, vertical, diagonal); developing fine motor skills; distinguishing size and color variation; using fine motor and logical thinking skills through layout and design; sorting and identifying body parts, with emphasis on facial components. Math, Science, Social Studies, Art.
Required Materials:
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seven rolls of 4 x 180 inch rolls of plaster gauze (cut into 2 to 3 inch x 3/4 to 5/8 inch widths); this amount will comfortably accommodate a class of 26.
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newspaper and smocks
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soap
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paper towels
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a large jar of Vaseline petroleum jelly
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one bowl of water per table of four students
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tempera or acrylic paint in assorted colors
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wide and small bristled paint brushes
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assorted colored feathers
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construction paper, twine chenille sticks, and yarn
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glue sticks (one per student)
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Elmer’s glue (with nozzle; one per student)
The maskmaking process that follows is similar to that of a physician applying a cast to a broken arm. A fun-filled effort, the face of each child will be used to lay the foundation for the mask. You will need two days per group to complete this project; each day will require about 45 minutes work time.
For first graders, extra hands are helpful in completing this project. Encourage parents to come in and volunteer to assist in this wonderful maskmaking experience. I have found that in Grades 2 and 3, attentive students who carefully follow directions can serve as small group leaders. I recommend this activity be conducted in groups of four or five, preferably used as a center-based activity. You may, however, desire to work with an entire class. Whichever approach is used, encourage students to pay close attention and follow directions, as not doing so will result in an “facelifting” experience and a disfigured mask.
Before beginning this activity, have the entire class help in cutting the plaster gauze strips. We made it into a counting and fine motor skill activity, i.e., children counted the number of strips while cuttingand they were often able to count way up into the hundreds. Through this preparatory activity, concrete number concepts were reinforced. Additionally, for those students who generally had difficulty using scissors, this activity served to strengthen fine motor skills. Also, ensure that participating students wear smocks. Equally important, have students with long hair or who wear bangs push or fasten their hair back so their face is totally exposed and no hair is in the way.
Step 1. Cover the table with newspaper. Place a large bowl of water and a shoe box filled with the pre-cut plaster gauze strips in the center of the desk. Have participating students sit in the proximity of these supplies.
Step 2. Cover the face of each participating student entirely with petroleum jelly. Gently smooth it on as close to the hairline as possible. (Note: it is best that an adult assist in this effort to ensure that no facial area is overlooked.) Go around the eyelids, and add a thick layer over the eyebrows. Continue applying Vaseline around the entire nose area, including beneath the outer nostril openings, the mouth, all the way down the jaw line to beneath the chin.
Step 3. Have students close their eyes before applying plaster gauze. Inform them to keep their eyes closed while plaster gauze strips are being applied. Emphasize that despite how funny it may appear, do not laugh, for doing so will result in being unable to create the mask.
One at a time, quickly dip the plaster gauze strip into the water (enough to cover it completely but not enough to oversaturate it). Allow excess water to drain off. Apply the moistened strip to the upper portion of the face, along the forehead area as close to the hairline as possible without touching the hair. Repeat this procedure, working your way down over the eyebrows, along the contour of the eyes, over the nose, beneath the nostrilsand be sure to leave these openings exposed. Cover the lips completely or follow the contour of the outer lip area, leaving an opening. Go to the edge of the chin. Each time a moistened strip is applied, lightly rub its surface until smoothened. Two coats of plaster gauze will result in a sturdy mask: if necessary, apply additional strips in areas that appear to be thinly layered.
Have the child sit until the gauze has hardened: this takes usually no more than four to five minutes. My students determined how long it would take for the mask to dry by looking at the clock and counting the minutes that passed by. During this brief waiting period, students were so eager to see the results, not a bit of laughter occurred.
Step 4. Tap lightly along the forehead, cheek and chin area of the mask to determine whether the mask is hard enough for removal. If set, carefully use the three middle fingers of both your left and right hands and run them slowly beneath the chin area of the mask. Lift gently. The mask will come off with ease, and a perfect replica of the child’s face will have been created. Allow the mask to dry thoroughly, preferably until the next day.
Step 5. Set up assorted colored paints. (Usually, tempera paints are the only ones on hand; if you are able to obtain acrylic paints, use them, as they give a nice gloss to the final creation.) Orange, black, red, blue, green, yellow, and brown are colors often used in Native American masks. Make these colored paints available, or encourage students to mix primary colors to create desired hues. Also, remind students to recollect some of the Native American masks they have previously experienced. Keep in mind patterns, line, design and begin. Advise students not to oversaturate the mask when painting it, for doing so will result in its becoming disfigured and/or collapse.
Step 6. If desired, students can adorn their masks with feathers, fake-fur fabric, twine, pre-cut assorted colored construction paper, chenille sticks, and other available materials. Affix adornments using carefully applied, small amounts of Elmer’s glue.
Mask Project 2: Simulated Wood African Masks
Task: Envision yourself creating a mask that represents the way you feel about yourself, your family, your people. Overall, think of colors, shapes, designs, and images that represent your feeling. Recall some of the African masks you have observed that reflect that same quality. Keeping all of these factors in mind, create an African mask.
Skills Focus/Content Areas: Identifying assorted shapes; identifying line design (horizontal, vertical, diagonal); distinguishing size and color variation; using fine motor and logical thinking skills through layout and design; sorting and identifying body parts, with emphasis on facial components. Math, Science, Social Studies, Art.
Required Materials:
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newspaper
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pre-cut oval and rectangular shaped cardboard (approximately 8 x 10 inches)
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small metallic sequins and/or beads in assorted colors
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assorted, pre-cut cardboard shapes (squares, rectangles, ovals, circles, triangles, semi-circles, trapezoids, parallelograms) in 1/2, 1, and 2 inch proportions
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assorted, pre-cut metallic wrap shapes (pliable copper, silver, aluminum, or tin foil available in sheets or on rolls)
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scuff coat brown shoe polish with built-in applicator (one bottle per student)
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small-tipped bristled paint brushes
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glue sticks (one per student)
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Elmer’s glue (with nozzle; one per student)
The following mask-making activity can be conducted in groups of four or five, and used as a whole class or center-based activity. Art supplies noted above are available at local craft and art specialty shops. Students can bring in their own bottles of Elmer’s glue and scuff coat shoe polish; ensure that “scuff coat” is emphasized, as this polish results in a mahogany-colored finish on cardboard. Also note, I found it best to have boxes containing the assorted cardboard shapes, metallic pieces, and the like strategically placed in the center of the table, reachable by all students participating in the activity.
Step 1. Have students select the 8 x 10-inch cardboard shape they would like to use for the framework of the mask. Have them select as many pieces needed to create the facial features and surrounding decor. Encourage them to overlap shapes, adhering them to the mask foundation with glue sticks to create two and three dimensional eyes, mouths, headdress, and collar areas. Cover the workspace with newspaper. Before students actually begin their layout and design, emphasize the use of symmetry and patterns when creating the maskto be creative. Encourage the children to apply the glue stick completely on the back of the pieces before adhering them to the foundation. This will ensure tenacity.
Step 2. Layout complete, students are ready to give the mask its wooden appearance. Scuff-coat shoe polish will be used to give this effect. Before conducting this portion of the activity, demonstrate the application of shoe polish so that the children will not oversaturate the cardboard. Using the applicator-tipped bottle, make vertical or horizontal strokes along the grain of the cardboard. Touch up missed areas with a small bristled paint brush. Allow at least 15 minutes to dry. Then have the children turn the mask over to the reverse side and repeat the application process. Allow the reverse side of the mask to dry before. Then, turn it back over so the facial features are once again revealed. Touch up where necessary. Allow all completed masks to dry for approximately 10 to 15 minutes.
Step 3. Using pre-cut metallic pieces and colored sequins and small dots of Elmer’s glue, have students to decorate the masks. Allow to dry overnight.
The results of both of the above-noted student maskmaking efforts are impressive. Finished products can be mounted on vibrantly colored cardboard and showcased on bulletin boards or in a designated display space.