Comparison, Exaggeration, and Sound Effects
Most of us do use images in everyday life. Someone who gets away with something is a “sly devil” or an “old dog.” An unattractive person is also a “dog” or a “beast.” A successful business person is a “lion of industry.” An excellent performer is a “star;” clothes are “threads;” and a bumbler is a “turkey.” All of these commonplace expressions are certainly imagistic! Our young poets may be unsophisticated in their treatment of one another at times, but their language patterns show a great deal about their ability to communicate with a fair amount of style and sophistication. The favorite form of creating images is the use of comparison. In life, as in poetry, metaphor overwhelms our choice of words. Therefore, a more careful look at the technique of comparative forms is warranted. Students can really enjoy this section of the unit. They can experiment with new ways of expressing their ideas and it is an exciting launching point for them. Suddenly, a skill they never realized they had becomes an invaluable asset in the classroom.
With younger children, Kenneth Koch has observed, “Comparisons are something children enjoy, and they are a natural and important part of poverty. Children are very good at them once they feel they are free to say whatever comes into their minds.”
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Because they are still immersed in a world of possibility, comparisons come with greater facility than they do for adults. The whiteness of chalk dust can be cloud-like. Raindrops can be the sorrow of the skies. Therefore, the metaphor, its relative, the simile, and its enlarged form, the extended metaphor, become natural and necessary devices. Alliteration, personification, and onomatopoeia add the dimensions of sound and variation to the types of choices your students make. For more advanced students, the terms synecdoche and metonymy, which are associative rather than figurative, can be added. (See glossary,)
Experimenting with familiar objects is an excellent way to begin. Prose poems, short descriptions of a limited subject, can be very useful. Students can be sent out on a scouting expedition, looking for trees that remind them each of himself or herself. A tall young man returned to his ninth grade English class one day with the following idea: “I feel like a great oak tree watching all the little saplings finally grow up around me.” Could any teacher have learned so much so quickly about childhood and acceptance?
Exercise 1: Explorations
Note
This exercise is great for the fall when the variety of trees presents alternatives: those covered with multicolored foliage; those barren; those still green; those archetypically autumnal. You may want to plan a fifteen-or twenty-minute outing where you point our lots of different types to encourage students.
Directions
1.
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Wander around school or your neighborhood and find a tree that really makes you stop and look. For all the differences, is there one thing about this tree that makes you think about yourself or your feelings? Tell why.
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Example
I am like the branches of the willow tree that sway and sweep and sigh, but never stop when wind of rain or heavy snow try to push me over. I move with these great forces—not against them—and I survive.
2.
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Draw (even if it’s awful!) a sketch of your tree as you see it. Do it right on the spot. Include it with your description, which may be rewritten in any form you want, including the shape of your tree.
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Note
You may wish to review the concept of concrete poetry discussed in the “Rhyme” chapter.
Example
(figure available in print form)
The exercise above offers a wide spectrum of poetry skills. Obviously, the words “like” and “as” pop up, prompting a discussion of simile and its powers of direct comparison. The student that was “the great oak” was first, metaphorical, implying a specific relationship, and then able (though unaware of it) to extend his metaphor to encompass not only his fellow students, but their comparisons as well. Alliteration becomes an associative skill where the repeated sounds generate feelings in students. The addition of a “swish” to the free description would broaden the sophistication to include onomatopoeia, a technique with which students are most certainly familiar because of its constant use in common speech and lyrics. Reexamine this line from Sondheim’s “Play It Cool”: “Breeze it, buzz it, easy does it.”
The juxtaposition of the tree and the student also accomplishes, in reverse, the introduction of personification. Here, students can begin to relate their everyday use of the figurative skill (“the car Crawls along,” “the wind whistles,” “a house cries out for repair”) to their own imaginative creations. Combining metaphor and personification can lead to some very interesting pieces of poetry. Introducing lines like “Night creeps over the city ... Night slowly creeps away” from Richard Durham’s “Dawn Patrol”
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presents the student with alternative reactions and opportunities to express the
living
nature of the city. The following passage from Norman McLeod’s “Red Furnace” turns to metaphor and simile to create exciting, startling forms to humanize New York City.
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The lateral trellis of Brooklyn Bridge
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Arches its back like an infuriated cat,
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And we are close to being thrown
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Into the aerial outskirts of a skyHobnailed with stars on the heel of heaven.
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lf the literal language presents the visual in a factual, photographic sense, the figurative makes no attempt to see or report, but rather filters experience to include speculation, anticipation, variation. The normal controls of what we see are abandonned; they are transformed by wish into what we desire to “see.” Students need help making the leap; once over, however, the flow of ideas becomes a flood. Be prepared.
Below is a series of exercises that utilize various types of short poetry emphasizing aspects of city life. Basically, they are designed to give your students familiarity with and facility in the use of figurative language.
Exercise 2: THIS OBJECT HAS FEELINGS TOO!
Note
: This exercise works on metaphor in a specific structure. Students must count out syllables according to set requirements, as they have in other exercises using cinquain.
Directions
Choose three objects of one or two syllables each. (Example: “the chair” or “lampshade”) and give each an unusual characteristic. In other words, using the structure of the cinquain, make three ordinary objects into extraordinary poems!
Example
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Lampshade
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Torn and TatteredDull and greasy-grimy
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Light rays throw off dingy shadows
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Lampshade
Question
What kind of room, what kind of lifestyle, is this lampshade part of?
Example
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Dryer
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Tumbling twisting
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Crying out when sneakers
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Flying kick against moving walls.
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Dryer
Question
What human traits are given to the dryer? To the sneakers? How does it change your feeling about this particular clothes dryer?
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The use of short poems or parts of longer poems can be excellent illustrations of the various aspects of figurative language.
Exercise 3: Compared to What?
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Apartment House
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A filing-cabinet of human lives
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Where people swarm like bees in tunneled hives,
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Each to his own cell in the towered comb,
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Identical and cramped—we call it home.
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Gerald Rafferty
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Questions
1.
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What three things does the apartment house become?
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2.
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What is the simile in the poem?
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3.
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How is the simile changed into an extended metaphor?
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Langston Hughes’ “Mother to Son” adds the taste of narrative poetry to the unit. Although emphasis is clearly placed on lyric poetry here, narrative forms certainly offer personal “stories” in verse forms:
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Life for me ain’t been no crystal stair,
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It’s had tacks in it,
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And splinters,
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And boards torn up,
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And places with no carpet on the floor—
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Bare.
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This excerpt clearly utilizes extended metaphor. There are positive and negative connotations attached to gleaming fragile crystal. Central to the mother’s feelings, however, is the idea of a run-down dangerous staircase. So much can be discussed based on these few lines. Insist that your students roll the words around in their ears for awhile. Why are words like “
t
acks,” “splin
t
ers,” and “
t
orn up” all in the same group of lines? What is the power behind the repetition?
Moving to another author’s use of similar imagery poses different questions:@P:Safe upon the solid rocks the ugly houses stand.
Come and see my shining palace built upon the sand.
Edna St. Vincen
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Here, the poet has opted for the shining palace—but not without sacrifice. Students can compare the safety of ugly houses to the danger of the shifting sands upon which the “crystal” home rests. Would the mother in “Mother to Son” still opt for the crystal stair? Is Ms. Millay presenting the same situations and problems just because the pictures seem so similar? Quite simply, no. Students must begin to understand the shades of difference and the variations in meaning that figurative language permits.
Exercise 4: Metaphor or Simile?
Directions
A.
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Identify what type of figurative language is being used.
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1.
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He was about to topple from the peak of his success.
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2.
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His laughter was like a breath of fresh air.
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3.
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Justice is blind.
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4.
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Life is a stalking predator.
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5.
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The city is an infested jungle.
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6.
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The teeth of a skyscraper bite at the clouds.
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7.
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The windows were like empty eyes.
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8.
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The crane arm cut through the midday sun.
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9.
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Like a dagger, the light pierced my eye.
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10.
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Rosy-fingered dawn crept across the midnight sky.
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B.
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Briefly, and in your own words, explain the picture you get after reading each of the ten sentences above.
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C.
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Choose five of the ten statements in A, and write the metaphor as simile, or vice versa.
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Exercise 5: Figuratively Speaking
Directions
Take the literal statement and turn it into a metaphor or simile. Be sure to use both devices in your work.
1.
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The light ray fell on the garbage.
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2.
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Litter rolled in the wind.
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3.
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The snow was reflected in the big window.
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4.
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Empty streets in early spring.
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5.
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Summer nights downtown.
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Exercise 6: This Sounds How?
Directions
A.
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Make a list of the sounds associated with two of the items listed below.
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1.
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school cafeteria
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6. noisy factory
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2.
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train crash
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7. big truck at night
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3.
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rock concert
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8. a car accident
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4.
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crowded store
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9. rain on a window
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5.
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construction site
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10. cleaning the kitchen
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B.
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Select two more items. Make a list of sounds that
repeat
letters in every word.
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Exercise 7: Finding Onomatopoeic Words
Directions
All the words below refer to sounds. Circle those that represent onomatopoeia—words that
imitate
the sounds they define.
1.
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speak
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21. gobble
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4l.clackety
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2.
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hoot
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22. snort
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42. blare
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3.
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whisper
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23. swallow
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43. growl
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4.
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cluck
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24. gulp
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44. bawl
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5.
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cackle
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25. wail
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45. hum
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6.
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crash
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26. moan
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46. buzz
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7.
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wham
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27. grunt
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47. caw-caw
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8.
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thud
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28. tick-tock
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48. chirp
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9.
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whush
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29. chime
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49. cacophonous
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10.
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swish
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30. sound
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50. harmony
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11.
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splash
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31. shriek
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51. twang
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12.
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hit
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32. whinny
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52. drawl
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13.
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bleat
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33. toot
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53. accent
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14.
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roar
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34. scream
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54. slur
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15.
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bellow
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35. hiss
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55. squeak
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16.
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call
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36. boo
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56. smash
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17.
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creak
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37. squawk
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57. yell
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18.
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sing
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38. yelp
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58. stomp
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19.
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holler
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39. bark
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59. exclaim
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20.
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lisp
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40. bow-wow
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60. whisper
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Exercise 8: How To Make Noise
Directions
Noisy words include sounds like crash and bump. Quiet words, on the other hand, like murmer and silence, all lead you to a still, restful feeling. Find as many words that, just by the sound, make you feel noisy or quiet.
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Finally, alliteration (the repetition of sounds in phrases), assonance (repetition of vowel sounds—see Exercise 6, “Thyme”), and onomatopoeia (use of words that sound like their meaning) are devices that can fascinate students. Insist that some of their lines, even if they
mean
little on the surface, sound wonderful. Exercises 6, 7, and 8 above reinforce sound skills.
Examples of these devices are everywhere: words, songs, prose, and poetry. Certainly a few well-chosen examples can demonstrate the technique. Two classic examples of the power of carefully planned alliteration are found in Tennyson and Coleridge:
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The moan of doves in immemorial elms
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And murmur of innumerable bees.
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Here, Tennyson’s “m” and “l” sounds almost create the low buzz of the bees, and the cooing of the doves. Coleridge’s famous “In Xanadu did Kubla Khan” matches the vowel sets in each half line, while the matched consonants reinforce the musical feeling.
Tongue twisters (“Sally sells seashells by the seashore”) can show the enjcyable side of alliteration. Lyrics from
The Mikado
(W.S. Gilbert) also point out the ridiculous extremes in alliteration;
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To sit in solemn silence in a dull, dark dock,
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In a pestilential prison, with a life-long lock,
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Awaiting the sensation of a short, sharp shock,
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From a cheap and chippy chopper on a big, black block!
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Onomatopoeia creates a real feeling of movement in poetry. In Noyes’ “The Highwayman,” a great deal of the strength of the rhythm depends on the activity of the rider. The line “Over the cobbles he clattered and clashed ... ” certainly gets the reader going.
In Poe’s “The Bells” every variety of bell makes a distinct noise:. “tinkling” sleigh bells, “tolling” and “moaning” funeral bells. Finally, the magic of the word “tintinnabulation” really does recreate the delicate sound of light silver bells as they jingle with the movement of a sleigh.
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Students should become familiar with such examples and then begin to imitate sound patterns in their own work. The sound of a word, therefore, sustains an image as much as the meaning of a word. Poetry, because of its versatility, enables students to grasp at glimmers rather than entire chunks of understanding. Encourage them. Active imaginations that lead to new sound, word, idea combinations also produce more careful thinkers. Above all, students get to explore untapped visions within themselves—a learning experience for us all.
Appreciation/Analysis
Because this final chapter is so important, and so full of many interesting poetic devices, the appreciation/analysis section will be divided by skills. This does not, of course, mean that any one poem or song displays ONLY that device, but rather provides an excellent use of one technique successfully blended with many others. Here, more than in any previous chapter, the teacher is urged to review all works referred to in the unit in light of their use of figurative language—especially as it combines with previously discussed devices to create moving and meaningful images. Finally, the last stanza of “My Papa’s Waltz” is analyzed, and like the unit itself, unites all the threads of poetry while displaying the motifs of city life.
Metaphor and Simile
The poem “Dawn Patrol” by Richard Durham is a beautiful example of metaphor and extended metaphor. In addition it presents a chilling image of the city at night. “Streets spangle,” “lights splatter,” and “soon comes the police patrol of dawn.” The poem also uses simile:
“A hobo bowed over a bar of time,.... Blinking like beer bubbles.”
Questions:
1.
|
Find five examples of metaphor in “Dawn Patro1.”
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2.
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How could one example be written as a simile? Is there a simile in the poem? If so, tell it.
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3.
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What image of the city is portrayed here? Pick two selections from earlier in the unit, one contrasting Durham’s image, and one comparable. Explain similarities and differences.
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4.
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Pick five verbs which contribute to the central image.
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5.
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Is there a theme for this poem? State it.
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“Strange Fruit” by Allan, and made famous by Billie Holiday, also demonstates the use of metaphor in song. The haunting tune has as its central image the idea of a lynched man hanging from a tree like piece of overripe fruit. Ask students the same questions here as for “Dawn Patrol.”
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Personification
Frank Marshall Davis’ “Tenement Room: Chicago” exhibits an artful use of personification. “The day creeps/slowly/from the tired room,” “a crippled tab1e,” “two drooping chairs,” and “a cringing bed age-weary” are just a few of the powerful personified images.
Questions:
1.
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Find five examples of personification in the poem.
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2.
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What is the mood of the poem? The theme?
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3.
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How do we discover a great deal about an entire city through a look at just one room?
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4.
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Look back through the other poems and songs in the unit. Find two examples of personification.
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5.
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Why does the room “sleep dreamlessly”?
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Onomatopoeia
Two pieces are useful here, one prose and one poetry. John Updike’s “Sonic Boom” is a poem which uses the expression “Thump of Doom” to help us visualize today’s “innovations” which produce uncomfortable side effects. The prose piece exhibits the way poetic techniques can enhance non-poetic literature. “The Sounds of the City” by James Tuite explores the sounds of New York through suberb use of onomatopoeia.
Questions:
1.
|
Find two examples of onomotopoeia in “Sonic Boom.” What is the theme of the poem?
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2.
|
Find at least ten phrases from “The Sounds of the City” which represent onomatopoeia. What image do you get of New York from this piece?
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3.
|
Looking back over other selections used in the unit, find three examples of onomatopoeia.
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4.
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Write a paragraph about the sounds in your neighborhood using onomatopoeic words.
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You beat time on my head
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With a palm caked hard by dirt,
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Then waltzed me off to bed
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Still clinging to your shirt.
The imagery in the final stanza of “My Papa’s Waltz” works to tie together all the parts. Here, the symmetry of a poem is neatly revealed. Just as the father “beat time” on the son’s head, so, too, the rhythm continues for the reader. A hand does not stroke the child, a dirty palm drums on his head. There is no sense of real affection or wholeness. Throughout the poem, beginning with the notion of “breath” there is no full character description or development: there is an ear, a countenance, a knuckle, a head, a palm—all touching in time to the consistently irregular, deliberately clumsy beat. Throughout the blur of the dance, only glimpses of the man and boy are seen.
The image of the clinging, worried child is an echo of the picture created in the first stanza. Like the true motion of a waltz, the uneven rhythm of the poem has taken a circular pattern as a result of the figurative language. The child hangs in the first verse and is still clinging until he is lowered into bed. In between, the noisy pans, the frowning mother, the battered knuckle, the scraped ear, present a vivid active system of sensory responses that constitute the shape of the memory. However, the beating of the poem does not necessarily lead to a sad view of this father. In a thematic descussion of “My Papa’s Waltz,” one has to consider the ideas of a “dance of death” or a “dance of life” that, through the repeated action of “beating time” on his son’s head, allows the father his chance to outwit death if only for the moment. The power of the poem rests in the combination of the dance motion and the frenetic path described. Rhythm and imagery are used together to indicate the man’s strong desire to live in the face of death (clearly present in the choice of words: “hung on like death”) through this momentary sharing with his young son.
Another interesting discussion can be generated from the adjectives chosen to describe Papa’s character. Finally, consider these questions: 1. Is he like other fathers? Is he perhaps only a victim trying to get through one more day? 2. Will the child, at twenty, be able to deal with his own misfortune any better because of such a memory?
“My Papa’s Waltz” is a perfect example of a launching point for students. The ability to condense so many possibilities into sixteen short lines fully demonstrates the successful result of interaction between the various technical skills required to write poetry.