Clifford J. Dudley
OBJECTIVES: Students will learn how Connecticut schools reacted and adapted to the social changes of the modern era. They will learn how schools had to become more functional to meet the vast new demands of the students’ needs in a changing world. They will also be given insight into how public money is obtained for education.
SUMMATION: The 2Oth century continued to bring changes to education. One very evident improvement was in the construction of the schools themselves. Attention was paid to concepts of proper lighting, as well as the importance of providing heat and fresh air.
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As more and more multi-level buildings appeared; fire safety programs became important. Also, a pattern for school stair construction was developed recommending that: 1) stairs be away from the main walls, 2) stairs be located at both ends of buildings and arranged so that students on the upper floors may travel without interfering with the lessons of the lower floors, 3) no open rails, 4) landings be well supported, 5) stairs to be properly lit, of fire-proof material, and at least four feet wide.
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This is not to imply that a renaissance began in all school construction. A 1930s survey in Bridgeport found many of the schools “very poor,” and the student need but look around his own town to find some examples of schools requiring serious repair.
World War I and the large percentage of immigrants living in Connecticut led to changes in the school curriculum. New importance was given to courses in civics, social studies, and homemaking. During the war years many districts established summer programs which stressed the merits of individual sacrifice and citizenship.
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A program of “Americanization” was developed whereby foreigners would be taught to read and write English and study American customs and ideals.
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In order to pass these subjects the immigrant was expected to complete certain activities. These were:.
Speaking:
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building a vocabulary
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conversational forms
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correction of errors
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Reading:
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blackboard work
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mimeographed or printed sheets
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familiar signs
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posters
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car advertisement signs
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text books
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newspapers
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phonics
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Writing:
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copy work
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dictation
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spelling
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filling in blanks
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seat work
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letters
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In addition, the post-WWI foreigner had to learn Arithmetic, Physical Exercise, Memory Work, Civics & Patriotism, Geography, and History. The State Board of Education distributed bulletins for teachers describing the administering and grading of the course work. The state also lent financial assistance to these programs as well as to programs of vocational instruction and health training.
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Although these programs advanced education in the state it has been argued that they also demonstrated how the prevailing distrust and fear of foreigners was transplanted into the educational system. This can be seen in the fact that the stated purpose of these programs was to maintain a pure American community as well as teach “obedience” to the newcomers.
Much of the material taught in these Americanization programs was one-sided. Materials often reflected chauvinistic patriotism rather than historical accuracy. This is illustrated in the section of study on the history of World War I:
July 1914, was a sad month for all civilized people of this earth, for it was then that Germany found a pretext for starting out on the road to World Conquest. For years, Germany had been looking forward to “the Day.” Now she was ready and “the Day” had arrived.
For nearly three years, President Wilson succeeded in holding the United States neutral, but during this time, Germany had been sinking boats with Americans on board. She had her agents within the United States plotting and planning destruction of factories, bridges, and railways. She had caused intense horror within the people of America by her cruelties in the conduct of the war. More and more autocracy appeared to be pitted against democracy. Neutrality was no longer possible. April 6, 1917, found America lined up on the side of political freedom.
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It was during this era that a period of confusion began over the concept and control of the schools. The Connecticut Revision Act of 1918 had confirmed the right of each individual town to control and manage its schools.
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This meant that while schools enjoyed the privilege of local authority, there was no directional leadership or overall organization. A board of examiners headed by the superintendent controlled virtually all aspects of a district’s schools.
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On the high-school level a split developed over the purpose of the schools. One faction advocated the 1919 Cardinal Principals of Secondary Education which stressed such programs as health, fundamental studies, family life, and civic responsibility. They were opposed by the supporters of the 1899 Commission on College Entrance Requirements which sought to standardize secondary school curriculum with its primary aim being college preparation.
The Depression and Second World War saw Connecticut schools dealing not only with traditional education but attempting to cope also with the effects changing social, economic, and military conditions had upon the students. The war years brought not only a shortage of male teachers, but also the use of schools as registration areas for many ration and other emergency programs.
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The schools’ health programs took on new importance as physical education was regarded as just as valuable against the enemy as other forms of education. Physical testing was carried out by the school nurse, who also examined students’ susceptibility to disease. This was especially important since childhood diseases were prevalent. In 1943, 41% of the high school students in West Haven showed some form of positive reaction when tested for tuberculosis.
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Monthly physical achievement tests and inspections continued to be given in the post-war years.
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A 1950 Governor’s Fact-Finding Commission on Education found serious deficiencies in Connecticut’s educational system. It was officially held that the teaching process itself was being handicapped by bureaucratic restrictions.
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Also, administrators were too engrossed with the business aspect of the schools. Citizens were again becoming critical of education and felt that there was a need to stress fundamentals. These included useful vocabulary, common math skills, and social studies.
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Actually people were so preoccupied with the growth of the state that rapid educational changes had gone unnoticed. In order to continue to produce informed citizens, the educational system had to adapt to the times. More funds had to be given to education. The State Department of Education began to prepare curriculum bulletins to help guide teachers in the instruction of many subjects. The students were offered an increased program of extracurricular activities as well as “Family Courses” such as food and nutrition, and child care.
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The increase in school-age population during the 1950s resulted in the need for more teachers and construction of many new schools.
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Most of the new schools were designed on the single floor idea. This was in contrast to the multi-level schools built earlier. The new schools were basically boxlike in appearance with an abundance of windows. This provided better lighting and ventilation, as well as fostering a more pleasant environment. Rooms were designed with an eye to better acoustics and heating. Hallways were constructed to make movement easier and less of an interruption to other classes. Also, covered walkways were provided so that students could pass outdoors on their way to other areas of the school. Most buildings had large gymnasiums and rooms for special area courses. By the end of the decade of the 1950s there were 954 schools in the state serving 460,132 students under the guidance of 17,240 teachers.
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By the 1950s Connecticut’s native Yankee population had been reduced to one-eighth of the total residents. Programs had to be developed which were more relevant to the lifestyle of the Italians, Poles, Irish, Russians, Germans, and French-Canadians which mow made the dominant school-age population.
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Education had to become more practical. The old concept of producing well-informed Americans who were ready for the future had to be made applicable to these people. It became important to widen curriculum with an aim to improved vocational preparation. When students were placed in different programs it was important to avoid grouping them by national stereotypes. A program which would provide equal education for diverse interests and needs was developed. In addition to the required courses, classes were offered in woodworking, home mechanics, mechanical drawing, printing, home management, cooking, and sewing. It was believed:
. . . that pupils would be far more anxious to stay in high school if they could be made to feel that their total education program adds up to something worth while . . . 18
The next decades continued the pattern of educational change in the state. Life became more complex as the state experienced more industrial, urban, and technical growth. New styles of instruction, such as team-teaching, were used in the attempt to improve the students’ learning rate.
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Project goals were developed to help produce higher standards of instruction. Their aim was to foster basic literacy in students, improve vocational training relevant to the job market, and develop various other activities to help the student.
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Yearly tests of academic skills were administered to improve educational programs by determining areas of weak performance.
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In order to graduate from most systems students were required to pass a specified number of hours in English, Math, Social Studies, Science, Physical Education, and electives.
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Even students under an expulsion were offered alternate education.
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In order to supervise the complex new systems of instruction administration itself became more complex. New management systems had to be developed to help organize the growing educational system.
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By the mid-seventies there were about 660,190 students enrolled in Connecticut schools, but the enrollment on the elementary level showed a marked decline.
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Yet by 1977 Connecticut had 860 elementary schools; the counties with the largest number were New Haven (221) and Hartford (207); the smallest number, Windham (26).
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Class size in the state’s public schools average 17.8 students per class, below the national average of 19.8.
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One statistic that climbed over the years related to Connecticut’s minorities. In 1976 there were 93,907 minority school children (blacks numbering 62,188; Hispanics 28,397; and Indian/Asian 3,322).
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This, figure continues to climb today and in the state’s largest cities (Bridgeport Hartford New Haven Stamford and Waterbury) “minority” youngsters are the majority of the students. Various attempts have been made to produce some sort of racial balance. Hartford had planned the development of schools,” . . . What would be racially balanced by transporting students by bus.”
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The busing controversy produced few concrete results at the time, and in many areas led to a large exodus of whites to private or suburban schools. Many of the minority communities showed little faith in educational changes. Some felt that the curriculum did not meet the needs of their children’s life-style. Others believed that changes took too long to affect area problems; and when they are developed they are financially handicapped.
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Now more than ever the financing of public education is an object of concern. The major sources of money for the state’s schools are: local taxes, state grants, federal grants, and public borrowing.
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Connecticut’s elementary and secondary schools receive 73.5% of their money from local support.
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In other areas of the country the state government supplies a large amount of funds for education; this is not true in our state. Since expenses rose from $109,356,344 in 1956 to $876,894,878 in 1976 the state has had to assume a greater share in paying for education.
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Since most of a school district’s funds came from local support, it became clear in the 1970s that richer towns would be able to provide a better educational system for their children. It was realized that a student’s education, “ . . . is at least partially determined by geographic accident.”
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This principle was attacked in the famous
Horton vs. Meskill
case of 1976. Some citizens of Canton argued that the system of paying for public schools was unconstitutional since tax payers in property-poor towns paid a higher tax for education than those in property-rich areas. These rich towns not only could provide a wider range of educational programs, but they received more state subsidies since they spent more on special programs.
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Simply stated, the citizens of Canton wanted the state to equalize education by giving more aid to property-poor towns. The court ruled in 1977 that the state’s way of paying for schools was not adequate.
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The criteria used to evaluate the quality of educational systems are: size of classes; training, experience, and background of teaching staff; materials, books and supplies used; school philosophy and objectives; type of local control; test scores; student performance; course offerings; and extracurricular activities.
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LESSON SUGGESTIONS:.
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1) Have your class study the 1917 West Haven High School curriculum in Appendix X. How do they compare it to their own curriculum in areas of: difficulty, workability, and relevance: Why do they think these courses were offered? Why do they think their courses are offered?
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2) Why do your students think Americanization programs were started? Do they feel the program was too difficult in its expectation (use the material in this section and Appendix XI)? Have them find out if any of their older relatives went through these exams. How were they administered? What were they like? What sort of picture of America did they convey to the test-taker?
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3) Using the town library have the class make a study of their town before and after the 1960s. They should be able to find state documents in the reference area concerning number of students, number of schools, and types of programs offered. You may want them to compare their town to others, or at other time periods.
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4) Discuss how current financial problems affect your school. What changes do these bring about in curriculum and extracurricular activities? Using Appendix XIII compare your city’s expenses to others. On what do you feel money should be spent? On what might you cut back?