Yolanda U. Trapp
1. Sharing some Common threads
I was raised in a Spanish-speaking country, but in my family group we spoke only in German, and one of the most important celebrations was "Weinachten" (Christmas) with Christmas tree, candles, presents, and dinner. Another celebration was "Oster" (Easter) with chocolate eggs, painted eggs, all kinds of eggs, the "Osterhase" (Easter bunny) had hidden in specific places, so I, as a kid, could be able to find them. What a joy it was when I had my basket full! Later, the family went to church all dressed up. I also used a special dress and hat and, of course, new shoes. We were celebrating the new life, the new beginning.
We celebrated many other holidays but these were always my favorites, and when my own children were big enough, they inherited these old German traditions. My husband was from Basque origin, but also lived in a South American culture. He loved the Basque food I prepared, and it was not a surprise to find out that in Chile are many Basques and that they incorporated to Chilean culture into their own culture. We also learned several songs in the Basque language very different from the Spanish ("Castellano" spoken in Chile). Our Christmas became a traditional German one, with a real pine and candles and toys my children found the next day under the tree. Today, my French son-in-law, and my two French grandchildren celebrate "Oster" and "Weinachten" like I did, and they also hang at their door a banner proclaiming "Joyeux Noel" ("Feliz Navidad" - Happy Christmas). Also my North American son-in-law and grandchildren celebrate the same traditional German holidays. They hang stockings on Christmas Eve, a tradition that comes to us from Greece. A Greek legend says that St. Nicholas, a Bishop, dropped gold down a man's chimney where it landed in his oldest daughter's stocking. My family decorates the house with poinsettias, the pretty traditional red, pink, and white flowers we all use at Christmas time. The poinsettia came to the United States from Mexico. Dr. Joel Poinsett brought one to South Carolina in 1828 and it quickly became a holiday favorite. Aren't they some common threads? I think that the whole country (U.S.A.) observes today these traditions brought to the United States and Canada by the immigrants who settled there.
2. Multicultural Discovery (The variety of cultures).
Africa
To many Americans Africa means cartoons of Tarzan swinging from the trees, photographs of misery and starving children, lions on landscapes or a place of mystery and "darkness".
Africa is so much more, rich in historical and cultural traditions, and filled with people who, often in the face of extraordinary adversity, are making an incredible effort in educating their children, fulfilling their obligations, seeking out the best of the modern world while holding to their long time traditions.
We as teachers have to be very careful not to reinforce the stereotypes children already have.
The way we should introduce students to the continent depends, of course, on their grade level. For kindergarten to second year, it would be wise to introduce and meet African kids, to get a sense of their lives and their physical environment. We shall learn about geography, like the African mountains or rainfall patterns by comparing them to American ones. To other levels, third and fourth, it would be interesting to introduce the social world that Africans inhabit. There's been a burst of multicultural writing (books) for all levels written by African American authors. (See resource and bibliography). Literature gives students a sense of African life as experienced by Africans.
For young students, the oral tradition of many African people could enrich them with proverbs, folktales, and "why" stories. Many have been transcribed and gorgeously illustrated in picture books appropriate for all elementary grades. Proverbs can be an effective device for gaining the interest of younger students. An excellent resource is
African Proverbs
, by Carlotte Leslau.
The Anansi tales of Ghana feature a spider whose cleverness sometimes leads to his own undoing. There is a lesson to be learned from Anansi. The spider tales have traveled from Africa to the Caribbean Islands.
African history is full of extraordinary surprises. Africa is a mosaic of different countries, and cultures. Ancient Egypt is an example of the oldest and greatest civilization in the world. We could explore the mysterious 9th Century Igbo-Ukwu tombs in Easter Nigerian or the stone churches of Ethiopia that give us evidence of cultural and political systems long before the arrivals of Europeans. Even long before Columbus sailed to the Atlantic, people from Zanzibar to Arabia and India were part of a cosmopolitan, multiracial trading zone and had mastered the ocean.
The continent is so vast with 53 or more countries, speaking nearly 1,000 languages, a land of 800 million people who today live in high-rise city apartments and traditional thatch-roof houses, that we have to start with the students focusing on a single country, such as Nigeria or Kenya. A good way to start without the stereotyped books and photos of Africa is Africa Beyond the Myths, an audiovisual guide to the diversity and richness of African cultures and people. (Society for Visual Education, Inc., 6677 N. Northwest Hwy., Chicago, IL 60631 (1-800-829-1900.)
Let's work in the spirit of "Harambe", which means "let us work together". (Kenya).
Native Americans (North Americans).
We have to say that Native Americans is a vast name given to natives from North, Central and South America, and traditionally they were known as American Indians based on Columbus's mistake. Recently, it has been changed to Native in general, meaning that they were people who belonged to this land. But they also came from other places before arriving to America.
According to archaeologists, people came crossing the Bering Strait searching for food following the tracks of animals like woolly mammoths, walking fifty-five miles from Siberia to Alaska and became the very first North Americans. Many Native Americans still do not believe that their people came here in this way. They believe, instead, the arrival stories of their old songs and myths.
The Eskimo-Aleuts were the last to come over from Asia, in about 3000 B.C. The land bridge did not exist anymore so they had to cross the Bering Strait in wooden skin boats, or rode in on floating ice. By the time Christopher Columbus arrived at this continent these were hundreds of thousands of Native Americans living in different areas. When the Spanish came they found more than 60 languages (and over 300 dialects) being spoken in the area what is now California. And the societies that developed over so many centuries were as different from one another as the habitats of the forest-dwelling Eastern Woodlands tribes were from those of the hunter-gatherers of the South-Western deserts and plains. The European exploration and settlement of North American brought the destruction of the unique cultures that had developed over many thousands of years. Had it not been for the determination of the European conquerors to destroy them and occupy their lands, the fascinating world of the Native North Americans might still exist today in its original colorful cultural diversity.
One of the few authentic voices for Native Americans is the writer and poet for children Virginia Driving Hawk Sneve, born in 1944 in Rosebud, South Dakota. She is a member of the Rosebud Sioux Tribe identified as today's leading Native American writer and poet. She said that she "attempts to interpret history from the viewpoint of the American Indian", and in so doing, she hopes "to correct the many misconceptions and untruths which have been too long perpetuated by non-Indian authors who have written about us." Her book
Dancing Teepees
is her contribution to literature about Native American life and culture. The poems are written in a way that students of third and fourth grade could easily pantomime the actions or make up a ceremonial dance to go with the poem "I rise, I rise".
For other great authors I have selected for the Unit, (please see Lesson Plans and Bibliography).
Asia
Asia is a huge continent, and consists of many countries in Central, North, East, West, South and Southeast Asia. In addition, the Archipelago of Indonesia is considered to be a part of the Asian culture. Celebrations and festivals take place almost every day and can last as long as a week. Art has also played a major role. The first organized civilizations we know through history are situated around 2500 B.C. The first cities in India were remarkable constructed, planned, and also the first in using drain pipes. The Yellow River in China and the Indo in Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa in India, were the most important resources for the people in helping to organize a civilization. From China we only know about the Shang Dynasty around 1750 B.C. but it's absolutely sure, according to the history, that civilization began long before these years.
Asia is the most vast continent and its whole extension is about one-third of the total extension of the world. It is also the continent which has the highest rate of population growth. It is formed of the half Oriental part of the former Soviet Union, the Republic of China and Mongolia and by the subcontinent formed by India and Pakistan. Great literature, poetry and theater have been handed through the centuries. Plays with puppets are performed and can last from two to five hours. Illustrated manuscripts are known only from the end of the nineteenth century. Many old stories are anonymous. It is a real challenge to study the folklore and literature of Asia because of the vastness of the area, the mixture of cultures and especially the unfamiliarity with the language. There is an abundance of tales from this area of the world and children will probably love to listen and to read books of some representative authors from China, Japan, Indonesia, India. One of the many representative tales I chose for kindergarten to second grade is
Yen-Shen, a Cinderella Story from China
, by Louie Ai-Ling. Illustrated by Ed Young. New York: Philomel Books, 1982. Children will love to listen to this particular story. It is the classic Cinderella story, and it is believed to be the oldest one. The teacher might read aloud both versions, the European and the Chinese. Another story I chose for Kindergarten to second grade is:
Umbrella
, by Taro Yashima. Puffin Books: New York, 1986. It tells us about a Japanese girl, "Momo", who eagerly waits for a rainy day so she can use the red boots and umbrella she received on her third birthday. The story is placed in New York, but her parents are Japanese. Beautifully illustrated, it is more a picture book and also has some language symbols written like "Haru", (spring), "Natsu", (summer), "Ame", (rain), "Momo", (peach) and sounds the rain makes as a Japanese girl would listen in her mother's language. The art of storytelling with flat puppets behind a sheet, with the light coming behind the sheet, could be used for kindergarten as an alternative activity for emergent readers. This is a high art in Indonesia. Students can work in teams and become the characters and move in and out from behind the white sheet. When the story is played out. Also in Indonesia the movements of the hands is a very important performance when dancing. Another suggested activity could incorporate hand motions when listening to music and storytelling. A good teacher resource of folk dancing of different areas of the world is:
Video Anthology of World Music and Dance.
Latin America: Divided into South America and Central America (The Caribbean).
In general, Latin America is an area inhabited by people who speak Spanish, but the cultural products are very diverse. Many of these products reflect multiple influences to different degrees: Indigenous American, African, European, Middle Easter, and also they have not come together easily, rather they were historically brought together through a process of invasion and slavery. These facts have always been shaped by oppression and domination, subsequently by resistance. As Alma Flor Ada very well explains in her article
Contemporary Trends
, "If the language has been a tool of oppression, the premise is that the language and the literature can be used as a tool of liberation."
The Hispanic oral tradition is rich and diverse. Many cultures have influenced in the so named "Latino culture". Much new oral folklore was introduced, indigenous cultures from the Americas, and others originated in Africa, mainly of Yoruba, Lucumi, Mandingo, Congo, and Carabali origin. Spain itself was invaded for more than 800 years by the Muslims. A significant number of Jews lived on the peninsula before it became the Nation-state of Spain. The Spaniards invaded also many tribal cultures with rich oral traditions and highly developed civilizations transforming them and creating new cultures.
South America (the southern cone).
In this part of the continent (as in many others) the first known inhabitants were of different and rich cultures. The arid coast of Peru is one of the world's great hearths of civilization. According to some anthropologists, complex societies developed in these valleys. In order to provide for their continued existence, they turned to conquest of neighboring valleys. These embryonic states developed into major civilizations like the Wari Empire of the Peruvian Central Highlands, the Tiwanaku (Tiahuanaco) culture of Highland Bolivia, the Chimu of Northern coastal Peru, and ultimately, the Inca Empire of Cuzco. All these cultures are known through archaeological remains. Tropical rainforest people did not develop the same sort of complex civilization. They also were larger than once believed. Archaeological remains are few except in sites like the Island of Marajo, at the mouth of the Amazon. In Southern South America, Incas rarely touched the area of present-day Central and Southern Chile or Northern Argentina Pampas, Patagonia and Tierra Del Fuego were even further beyond their range. Not until the late 19th century did the descendants of Europeans establish a permanent presence, south of the Bio-Bio River (Chile).
The theme of multiple heritage is a historical reality for Hispanics (or Latins?). Many Hispanic writers have given us the most extraordinary literature, Nobel Prizes as an example. In the last century, Latin America has published books than never before. The number of writers producing original works in Spanish (especially for children) continues to increase substantially. In Latin America there is a conscious effort to validate the multiple heritage through fables, fiction, and poetry. Some of the Latin writers have also introduced series of books for youngsters about great explores and their discoveries. The illustrated book
The Voyage of Magellan
(El Viaje De Magallanes) by Piero Ventura, translated by Manuel Olasagani. (Magisterio Espanol, 1980.), is a great one for third and fourth graders. Also
The Legends of the Amazon
(Leyendas Amazonicas) by Jose Luis Jordana Laguna is a collection of brief stories that portray the remote and exotic landscapes of the Amazon region and the tribal cultures that have made that region their home.
For grades two to four I selected
Aztecas, Pueblos Del Pasado
. (Aztec Villages of the Past) by Jose Garcia Sanchez, Luis and Miguel Angel Pacheco. Altea, 1984. "Soy El Sol", (I am The Sun) one of the stories, describes the nature and properties of the sun, its relation to earth, and earthly life, and its role in human history and everyday human activity.
A great book I suggest for all grades is
Cuentos De Hispanoamerica
(Stories of Spanish America). Nebrisa, 1992. Each of the Latin American countries is represented in this collection of stories, which contains retellings of popular legends as well as original stories by the best authors of each country.
Central America (The Caribbean)
The finite boundaries of islands fool us into believing that islands are easy to understand. They are not. Especially in the Caribbean. The only certainty is that no two islands are exactly alike. Just like people, each island has its own personality. Thus, once-British Jamaica is not like Puerto Rico, with Spanish heritage, and the Latino Dominican Republic is very different from the French-affected Haiti, and Nevis is different from St. Kitts, together an independent Caribbean country with a British heritage. Another independent country since 1898 is Cuba, the largest of the Caribbean islands. A few islands are still dependent territories but with some self-government. The islands of the West Indies, so named by Christopher Columbus in his search for the East Indies, were an earlier landfall for Arawaks, Tainos, Ciboneys, and other tribes. The first tribes made their way from Venezuela's Orinoco River. Peaceful tribes were conquered, first by the Caribs, who destroyed the gentler culture with their more aggressive ways and then by the Spaniards who used Arawaks brought from Aruba for arduous field work. Although the Spanish came first, followers came after -- from Pirates to Plantocracy, Spaniards, French, English, Dutch, Danes, and especially the Africans, Chinese, and Indians brought to work the plantations. All of them carried fragments from their home countries. The languages that are spoken, then, are of a great variety. For example, many of the islanders speak English (Bahamas, Jamaica, Virgin Islands, Barbados, Trinidad), many speak Dutch (Curacao, Aruba, St. Eustatius), several speak Spanish (St. Thomas, St. Croix, Puerto Rico, Cuba), and some speak French (Guadeloupe, Haiti, Martinique). With the rich cultural background and the rich mixture of language, the folk tales take on a distinct flavor all their own. Anansi the spider tales came to the islands from Africa. This is a real classic book that I highly recommend for kindergarten to second grade. The Anansi trickster is one of the major trickster figures in island stories. In poetry there is recently edited
A Caribbean Dozen: Poems from Caribbean Poets
by John Agard and Grace Nichols with color art by Cathie Felstead (Candlewick). When reading this book you can see and even hear the vivid sights and sounds of the islands through the work of 13 contemporary poets; each prefaced with a photograph and commentary. I also selected
Mother Scorpion Country
, (La Tierra De La Madre Escorpion) a legend from the Miskito Indians of Nicaragua. (Central America) A Spanish/English version by Harriet Rohmer and illustrations by Virginia Stearns, 1986. This retells us the legend of a brave young Miskito Indian who follows his wife from the land of the living to the spirit world.
East Europe
Why did I introduce a separate section for East Europe to the Unit? Because this area of the world represents a diversity of cultures. I will give only general information about the incredible productive role this part of the globe has played in the cultural life of all of us. The effort of this area has been felt in neighboring countries. As an example, Western Finland was influenced by Russia. Also Lithuanian tales were influenced by them, and there is evidence of the Slavic influence in Greece and Romania. Puppets have played an important role in Slavic folklore. Some Romany tribes did not record their history because they are wanderers but oral traditions kept a number of the tales alive. Celebrations, arts and crafts, food, songs, dances, rhythms are also very important aspects of each culture I have mentioned in the Unit, but my goal is discovering books children would love to read and explore. One of the books I selected for the Unit is
Beauty and the Beast
because there are Basque, Swiss, English, Italian, German, Portuguese, Lithuanian and Indian versions. In the Lithuanian story, for example, the beast is a white wolf. Other stories also tell us about a prince who is magically transformed into a monster and can be saved only by the love and devotion of a kind and beautiful woman. This is a great story to be compared with other versions we know. For all grades (kindergarten through fourth). Two more books I would recommend for third and fourth grades: One is
The Always Prayer Shawl
, by Sheldon Oberman, illustrated by Ted Lewin which tells us the life of Adam, a Jewish boy who learns how traditions link generations. The gripping illustrations change from black and white to vivid color as Adam emigrates from Russia to America and journeys from childhood to old age. And, finally, I recommend
American Islam
. These are interviews with Muslim teens that provide a realistic view of an often misunderstood religion. The book offers a historical overview of Islam, an explanation of the basic tenets of the Koran, and a brief but notable discussion of the differences associated with the practice of Islam in the African American community.
The story of all human beings still lies in the unknown. Where do we come from? The question is not able to be answered yet, nor will it be for the next generations, or will it be . . .?
3. History of Reading. (Reading to Children)
Since reading is assumed to be the most critical of the fundamental skills children learn, the emphasis has been placed on reading instruction in recent years. Massive programs have been initiated to increase the level of reading for our society. This unit is intended to help teachers to involve elementary students in the process of reading when using selected literature of different cultures that inhabit the United States. A brief historical overview in the field of reading instruction might be especially informative. Reading instruction in America was almost identical to that in England in the earliest 1607. The alphabet method was used memorizing the names of the letters. Then, the child learned to spell and pronounce combinations of two letters and finally mono-syllabic words. Phrases, sentences, and stories were introduced next. The only book children had in most homes was the Bible. Later, in 1790, one of the most influential books used was
The American Spelling Book
by Noah Webster, containing lists of words and syllables, also rules for correct reading, speaking, and pronunciation. The book was used widely for reading and spelling instruction. In the early 1800s the first set of graded textbooks was compiled by Lyman Cobb. Then, in 1828 Worcester published the first readers in America that used a different approach to instruction. In his books, Worcester suggested the adoption of the word method for teaching reading. The child had to repeat the word over and over again until the child learned it. Later the whole-word method was accepted by experts as a general method of teaching reading. The McGuffey Readers represented books in which the child used it for each level. With the first law in education children were required to stay in school, also teachers had to do more and find other ways to teach students.
Reading instruction in the Twentieth Century.
At the beginning of the Century more emphasis was placed on meaning and thinking than on word mastery. The whole sentence was read and then some words were selected, but parents were concerned that the children were simply memorizing certain words. Sound-symbol relationships were renewed and by 1910 children were trying to master the phonics. Around 1915 again teachers began to observe that many children could not pronounce words or know their meaning. Criticism of the method followed. As a result the story method was introduced but it was a sort of expansion of the sentence method. First, the teacher read the entire reading selection; then the children would read the story and because the teacher read the unit or story before, it was expected that children would understand the meaning and read by themselves. Evaluation tests began to be used and that led reading to more scientific basis. Many new ideas were offered in the 1930, also corrective techniques. Basal Reader Series were also introduced. The programs offered a systematic and sequential instructional plan through the grades. Again, a lot of criticism was formulated when some articles reported that in the U.S. were many poor readers. During the 1950s Rudolf Flesh published
Why Johnny Can't Read
advocating a return to the phonic approach. During the 1960s more significant research studies were conducted and concluded that combinations of approaches (phonic approach, Basal reading, language experience, programmed reading, the Montessori method) were superior to a single approach.
Today, again, there are well-designed programs with solid evidence that when fully implemented they can help. President Clinton's initiative is to have all students reading independently by the end of third grade -- known as the "America Reads Challenge". I will mention the last programs briefly, and highlighting the one which directly concerns to the unit. It could provide strategies to the teachers.
