Jennifer M. Ports
Besides class and gender it is also important to understand race in colonial America. This unit will try to engage students with different depictions of both Native Americans and slaves during this time period. The aim will be to get students to compare and contrast how these groups are portrayed in various pieces of art created throughout the colonial period. This naturally will lead into a discussion of what these different portrayals say to the viewer about how these two groups were viewed by the painter and their society at large.
Two paintings by Benjamin West prominently feature Native Americans in the colonial Period,
The Death of General Wolfe
(1770, National Gallery of Canada), and
William Penn's Treaty with the Indians in 1683
(1771–2, Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts).
The Death of General Wolfe
, landed West the occupation of history painter to the king and captures a moment in history when the British won a major battle in the French and Indian War, one that nearly destroyed the French empire in the Americas. This history painting depicts the death of an important British general named James Wolfe, and shows officers surrounding his body on the battle field. In the foreground is a Native American seemingly just as reverent as the other British officers, and next to him is William Johnson, who was not actually at the battle but was known for working with Native Americans. Questions that can be discussed using this painting are: Do artists depict historical subjects accurately? How does the artist portray the Native American in the painting and why do you think he is portrayed in this way, or portrayed at all? Generally speaking we see that the Native is just as concerned with the death of the General as the other British. Perhaps this is to remind English viewers of the role colonials and Natives played in the war as "valued partners that the British could not afford to lose."
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In
William Penn's Treaty with the Indians in 1683
, another history painting by Benjamin West painted after
The Death of General Wolfe
, we seen a moment in history when William Penn negotiated a land exchange with the Delaware Natives. This painting portrays a peaceable agreement between the Natives and the English, but also juxtaposes the two converging worlds of the Natives verses that of the colonists. It also hints at the trade that existed and that would continue to flourish between the groups. Besides discussing how the Natives and white colonists are portrayed in this image, this painting could be used to also begin a discussion on the economy of the colonies during this time period. Discussion questions around this painting could include: How are the natives portrayed verses the English colonists? How do the subjects of the painting seem to relate to one another and what examples are there in the painting to support your assertion?
Another piece that points to the relationship between Native Americans and the British colonists is Ezra Stiles'
Phebe and Elizabeth Moheegan's Wigwam
(1761, Bienecke Library Yale University). Stiles was a man who was interested in the well being of Natives in Connecticut. Upon visiting a wigwam in Niantic he sketched his findings, and in this sketch we see much evidence of European and Native cultures converging. This is indicated by the furnishings and design of the interior that we see sketched in the image. Similarly to how
William Penn's Treaty with the Indians in 1683
pointed to strengthening trade between the two cultures, this sketch lends evidence to the idea that trade was strong between the two cultures and that the cultures has begun to blend together.
One way for teachers to use these three images to help students understand race in colonial America would be to set up stations in the classroom and have each one of these images at a different station. If lacking space, the teacher could split the class into groups, and place all the materials for each image in a folder and have the folders get passed around instead of having the groups move. Either way, the idea would be to present the students with each of the images and have them describe what they literally see, what they think they see (their interpretation) and what questions they still have. This will allow students to point out different aspects of paintings, develop interpretations, and help lead into the part of the lesson where the teacher could explain what the students were looking at, using their ideas as the basis for discussion. Students in New Haven will have already completed a unit on Native Americans before European contact, so this will allow them expand on their understanding of Native Americans and better understand changes in their culture after European contact and how colonists viewed them. In the end, students could then discuss or write about their new understanding of Native American culture in colonial America, using their prior knowledge to springboard their discussion.
It is also fascinating to examine how African, or black, slaves are portrayed in colonial art, whether it be in a portrait, history painting, or any other type of painting. While it is common knowledge that slavery existed in the British colonies, not all depictions of slavery were the same. Unknown Artist,
Plantation Scene
(18th century, Abbey Aldrich Rockerfeller Fold Art Museum) and Thomas Coram,
View of Mulberry House and Street
(1805, Gibbs Museum of Art) both depict slave life on plantations, but do so quite differently. In both paintings the master's house can be seen in the background, but in the first the larger focus is on a group of slaves, both men and women, "jumping the broom." This is a cultural dance associated with weddings in Yoruba culture. It captures a moment supposedly away from the view of the master, where the slaves can celebrate their culture, community, and family, but perhaps in an idealized way. In
View of Mulberry House and Street
, although painted after the Revolutionary period, one can see slave quarters in the foreground framing the slave owner's home in the background. This painting depicts a peaceful plantation scene where slaves are spread out, walking in pairs and working in the distance while still distanced from the home of the master.
Unlike the paintings mentioned above, Justus Engelhardt's
Henry Darnall III as a Child
(1710, Maryland Historical Society) and an unknown artist's
Portrait of Phyllis Wheatly
(1773, Library of Congress) are both portraits. One depicts a young, white boy with a slave, and the other has a young, black girl as the subject. The image of Henry Darnall III incorporates many of the elements of portraits mentioned earlier so it could be used in the study of race and gender as well. In this image Henry stands in the foreground with an expensive jacket and is surrounded by objects, both in the foreground and background, that speak to his family's wealth. To his right is his black slave, similar in size to Henry, but he is attending to his master from behind a wall, with half his body hidden behind it. The chain around his neck and his body language speaks to how the painter and the painted viewed him.
On the other hand there is the portrait of Phyllis Wheatly, believed to be "the first portrait produced by an African American of a member of his own race" in 1773.
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Here we see a young, black female portrayed as an intellectual, pen in hand, paper on the desk, hand under her chin, and eyes staring into the distance ahead. Famous in history for being a slave directly from Gambia and learning English, Latin, and the Bible from her mistress, and for being the first published African American poet, this image depicts her as the intellectual she was, despite how the white colonials may have perceived her. Comparing these two portraits to one another could be a valuable exercise for anyone studying race in colonial America, particularly for students who carry the preconceived notion that all African or blacks from the time period were invisible and only slaves. While the majority were perceived this way, it is important to acknowledge the achievements of the blacks who stood out in this period for their intellectual capabilities in a time when they were thought of merely as manual labor.
In John Greenwood's
Sea Captains Carousing at Surinam
(1757–8, St. Louis Art Museum) there is a chaotic scene of sea captains drinking together in a room. All are white sea captains acting rowdy, rambunctious, and without dignity except for three black servants, one serving a punchbowl from the bar, another sleeping on the floor, and the third carries two drinks about to be served to some sailors. When their behavior and body language are compared to the white sailors, we see that the black men seem composed and with dignity while the sailors act foolishly.
One last painting that adds to the discussion of race in colonial America is John Singleton Copley's,
Watson and the Shark
(1776, National Gallery of Art, Washington D.C.). This painting is bound to bring about conversation on its own, and while there is much to observe in the painting, I would draw attention to the black man standing in the center of the painting. Copley was commissioned to paint a scene from Brook Watson's life, one where he was swimming in Cuba and lost his leg to a shark in the harbor. While it is unclear why he holds the position he does when it was originally sketched to be a while sailor in that position, it is worthwhile to debate interpretations of this piece. While one art historian sees it as drawing "attention to the hypocrisy of colonial claims to independence when such claims rest upon the continence of slavery," another says it was edited when the scene was described to have had a black man present.
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Regardless the painter chose to portray the black man the way that he did for a reason. He is at the center of the cluster of men, and above the majority of them. He points to the man in the water next to the shark while the man in the water seems to reach up toward him. An engaging discussion could be had analyzing this scene and asking why it was done the way it was, and what it means to us studying race in colonial America.
Overall a discussion comparing depictions of black men and women from this time period through the images mentioned, added to an understanding of relations between colonial Americans and the Native Americans, can add depth to our understanding of race in colonial America. It can help students to understand the intricate nuances and complexities between the difference races and how they were viewed by one another. Another great exercise to engage students with this material would be to have students choose one of the African or slave figures from one of the paintings and create a narrative for that figure. They could write about what they think their figure is thinking, who their figure is, and what their life might be like, using clues from the image. This would allow them to give voice to those in history who often went ignored and undervalued and they could compare different depictions of slavery in this way as well.