Environmental Racism
-
1. Susan Moffat, “Minorities Found More Likely To Live Near Toxic Sites, Environment: Study finds race is more important than income in determining whether a neighborhood has such a hazard.”, Los Angeles Times, August 30, 1995, pp. B1.
-
2. Ibid.
-
3. From Los Angeles, East St. Louis And Matamoros: Developing Working Definitions Of Urban Environmental Justice, Race, Poverty & The Environment, Urban Issues—Issue 11.
-
4. Ibid.
-
5. Ibid.
-
6. Ibid.
-
7. Janet Phoenix, Get The Lead Out, Race, Poverty & The Environment, Urban Issues, Issue 11.
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7a. From Los Angeles, East St. Louis And Matamoros: Developing Working Definitions Of Urban Environmental Justice, Race, Poverty & The Environment, Urban Issues—Issue 11.
-
8. Robert R Higgins, Race, Pollution and the Mastery of Nature, Environmental Ethics, Vol 16 Fall 1994 Pgs 253.
-
9. From Los Angeles, East St. Louis And Matamoros: Developing Working Definitions Of Urban Environmental Justice, Race, Poverty & The Environment, Urban Issues—Issue 11.
-
9a. Jonathan Kozol, Amazing Grace, Crown Publishers Inc., New York, 1995
-
10. Robert R Higgins, Race, Pollution and the Mastery of Nature, Environmental Ethics, Vol 16 Fall 1994 Pgs 251-252.
-
11. Robert Bullard, Residential Apartheid In Urban America, Race Poverty & Environment, Vol 3&4, #1 Winter/Spring 1993.
-
12. Ibid.
-
13. Ibid.
-
14. Robert R Higgins, Race, Pollution and the Mastery of Nature, Environmental Ethics, Vol 16 Fall 1994 Pgs 252.
-
15. Troy W. Hartley, Environmental Justice: An Environmental Civil Rights Value Acceptable to All World Views, Environmental Ethics Vol. 17 Fall 1995 pp. 283
-
16. Ibid.
-
17. Ibid. 279.
-
18. Ibid.
-
19. Ibid.
-
20. Ibid. 281.
-
21. From Los Angeles, East St. Louis And Matamoros: Developing Working Definitions Of Urban Environmental Justice, Race, Poverty & The Environment, Urban Issues—Issue 11.
-
22. Simmons Buntin, Environmental Liberty and Social Justice for All: How Advocacy Planning Can Help Combat Environmental Racism” November 1995.
-
23. Ibid.
LEAD POISONING The Silent Plague Stalking The Innocent
The Environmental Protection Agency and the Department of Health and Human Services insist that lead poisoning is the number one “environmental disease of children, affecting at least ten percent of preschoolers.”(1) The Center for Disease Control in Atlanta, Georgia deems lead poisoning the “most common and societally devastating environmental disease of young children.” (2) Of those children affected an overwhelming number are black or otherwise non-white. 90% of poor black children aged three to five living in American inner cities have elevated blood lead levels. It is a problem that warrants the concern, compassion, energy, outrage and activism from all sectors of the community. It is also a problem that demands we, as teachers, educate ourselves, our students, our parents and all others in the school community about this threat to the health, quality of life and intellect of our young treasures. This unit will hopefully aid you in this endeavor.
Lead—A Bittersweet History
Lead has enjoyed a long, if bittersweet, intimacy with man. During pre-dynastic Egypt lead was reportedly added to cosmetics and eye salves. In ancient Rome it was prescribed as a cure for a rash, fever, indigestion and lust. Roman nobility had a habit of drinking potions sweetened with sugar of lead. This is rumored to have contributed to the fall of the Roman empire.
During the Age of Industrialization lead took on many new faces as the mass production of lead pipe, lead solder and lead laced pigments for glazes and the infamous lead paints. Because of its versatility it was seemingly perfect for use in bullets and other shot as well as typeface.
Well into the twentieth century new uses for lead continued to be developed. They included lead coverings for electrical wires, lead tubes for toothpaste, lead shields for X-ray machines, lead plates for batteries and even more lead in paint which found its way on to most everything including baby carriages. By the 1930s severe lead poisoning had become a common childhood disease characterized by convulsions, coma, brain damage and death. In the 1940s the paint industry began to reduce the amount of lead in its products. But, the emergence of tetra-ethyl lead which was used as an anti-knock additive for gasoline increased lead mining throughout the world. Through the 1960s the sale of leaded gasoline continuously rose. And, as the sale of leaded gasoline continued to increase so did the incidence of lead poisoning which lead to the creation of more than 150 clinics nationwide to deal with this health hazard.
In the past twenty-five years there has been a crusade to send lead packing in some circles. In 1978 Congress banned the residential use of lead-based paint. But, as will be discussed in a subsequent section, bans such as this one were not uniformly enforced. In 1979 Dr. Herbert L. Needleman published a study which continues, along with his more recent study, to impact public policies in relation to lead. In this study Needleman analyzed the amount of lead in the teeth of children and determined that children with higher residues of lead in their teeth did not do as well on IQ and developmental tests compared to other children. Largely due to the efforts of Dr. Herbert L. Needleman the amount of lead in gasoline had dropped 99.8% from what it had been in the mid-1970s. Dr. Needleman, the former chairman of the board of the Alliance to End Childhood Lead Poisoning and professor of pediatrics and psychiatry at the University of Pittsburgh, is touted as the government’s top adviser on lead.
Also, by 1990 lead pipes were no longer standard in plumbing. They had been replaced by plastic or copper pipes. Cans with lead seams were no longer being manufactured in this country and accounted for less than 1% of cans on the market. Lead solder had been banned. Industries that used lead and lead smelters were required to sharply limit their emissions.
In 1991 the Center for Disease Control (CDC) reduced the acceptable blood lead level from 25 micrograms of lead per deciliter of whole blood (ug per dl) to 10 ug per dl. The CDC defended its decision to reduce what it deemed an acceptable blood lead level by citing “scientific evidence [that] some adverse effects occur at blood-lead levels at least as low as 10 micrograms per deciliter in children, [and evidence is] so overwhelming and compelling that it must be major force in determining how we approach childhood lead exposure”(3)
The Residential Lead-Based Paint Hazard Reduction Act or “Title X” was passed by Congress in 1992. It’s purpose is to “mobilize national resources to support expanded prevention efforts on a broad scale.”(4) This act instructs the Environmental Protection Agency to develop regulations for the removal of lead paint. It gives states the authority to administer and enforce these regulations. It also mandates that starting in 1996 that owners of homes built prior to 1978 must inform prospective buyers or renters of the presence of lead paint and provide them with leadhazard information. Real estate agents must also adhere to this policy or be liable for civil and criminal damages.
Lead Poisoning and the Inner-City Child:A Tale Of Two Cities
It could be said it is the “best of times and the worst of times” when discussing the lead situation in this country. There are those who laud the efforts to make the horrors of lead poisoning a bad dream that has long passed. And in many circles that has indeed been accomplished to a large extent. But, for many poor children living in the inner-cities lead poison is indeed a demon of present and likely the future. As stated earlier 90% of poor black children from age three to five have elevated blood-lead levels. This is due in part because poor children are more likely to live in homes built before 1980. The CDC estimates that about 3,000,000 tons of lead are still in approximately 57,000,000 occupied homes. 14,000,000 of these units are believed to contain lead paint.
A number of these older homes also transport their water through lead or copper pipes with lead solder. An EPA study determined that 130 water supplies throughout the nation which serve more than 32,000,000 people have unhealthy lead levels. This problem also applies to schools, office and other public buildings.
Contaminated soil is also a primary source of lead exposure. It is estimated that as much as 4-5,000,000 tons of lead from the years when leaded gasoline was rampant remain in soil near heavily traveled intersections. Urban areas normally have higher traffic patterns than nonurban areas. Lead in the soil usually is found in the upper inch or two of soil. But, since soil in urban areas is turned over at a high rate the contamination is much deeper.
Also, Blue collar workers who work around lead may carry lead particles home on their clothing and person. These particles can be transferred to other family members through direct contact or through the washing machine when this clothing is laundered.
There is also the issue of nutrition. Poor inner-city children may be more likely to have diets deficient in calcium and iron which inhibit lead absorption. Their diets may also be higher in fat which speeds of lead absorption.
There are also issues which concern the unequal enforcement of bans and other measures in impoverished inner-city areas. Jonathon Kozol writes of such a situation in the South Bronx in New York City in his book Amazing Grace The Lives Of Children And The Conscience Of A Nation:
It is also recognized that many children in poor neighborhoods such as Mott Haven have been neurologically impaired . . . many from lead poisoning in their homes and also, shockingly enough, within their schools. Although New York officially banned the use of lead in residential paint in 1960, this prohibition was unevenly enforced in ghetto neighborhoods and never energetically enforced in city-owned apartments. And, notes the Times, the city “continued to apply ‘industrial grade’ lead paint” in public classrooms until 1980. John Rosen, a well-known pediatrician and leadpoison specialist at Montefiore Medical Center in the Bronx, warned the city as long ago as 1987 that schools in the area were “dangerously loaded with 1ead.”(4)
USA today reports in its July, 1995 issue that:
Since the CDC lowered the acceptable blood-lead level from 25to 10 ug per dl. the Federal government has required all states to screen young children covered under Medicaid for lead poisoning. Washington, though, is not requiring that the most accurate test be used. Since the EP costs about $2.50, compared to over $60 for more sensitive screening, most states are utilizing the former. Thus, many cases of dangerous blood-lead levels will go undetected. (5)
These conditions speak to the irreverence for the life of those assigned by way of their color and socioeconomic status to what are known as the “ghettos” in this nation. The issue of environmental racism and the theory of “social pollution” are examined thoroughly in the preceding unit.
Consequences of Lead Poisoning
When lead enters the body it gets into the bloodstream and soft tissue, liver, kidneys and brain. It eventually settles in the teeth and bones. As the amount of lead increases poisoning occurs. Little lead is needed to cause poisoning. Lead can affect every biological system. With lead poisoning symptoms may not be apparent until toxicity reaches a high level. Symptoms may also be mistaken for other conditions such as colic in the very young or attention deficit disorder in older children.
When blood lead levels exceed 40 ug per dl symptoms may include abdominal cramps, diarrhea, constipation, vomiting, change in sleeping patterns or activity level and irritability. Some infants may refrain from eating. In persons with high blood lead levels there may be symptoms of mental confusion, stumbling and difficulty with speech. With very high blood lead levels, 70-100 ug per dl, seizures, deafness, nerve paralysis, swelling of the brain and death may result.
It is estimated by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services that millions of children have blood lead levels high enough to cause nervous system damage. The brain and nervous systems of fetuses and infants are particularly susceptible and easily damaged by lead poisoning. Recent studies by Dr. Needleman and David Bellinger, a Harvard Medical school psychologist, indicate that very low blood lead levels in toddlers at age two are very much related to intelligence and well being later in life. One study determined that an approximately 6 point IQ deficit at age ten for each 10 ug per dl at age two.
Recently studies have indicated that there is a connection between lead poisoning and delinquent behavior. D.W. Denno published a study of 987 African-American youths in which 487 were male and 500 were female. This study concluded that lead poisoning in the male participants was the most significant predictor of disciplinary problems and was also a very significant predictor of adult criminal behavior. Dr. Needleman and several others published a study in the Feb. 7, 1996 edition of the Journal of the American Medical Association which determined that there is a definite relationship between bone lead levels and delinquent behavior. Needleman studied 301 boys in the public school community. They were studied from the age of 7 to 11. Bone lead levels were measured. The relationship between bone lead levels and anti-social behavior was examined. Information relative to anti-social behavior was gathered from three sources: teachers, parents and the participants themselves. Attentional function, neurobehavioral and academic performance as they relate to bone lead levels was also evaluated. The study concluded that “Lead exposure is associated with increased risk for antisocial and delinquent behavior . . . ” (6)
Adults too are at risk for negative health effects from exposure to low levels of lead. Recent studies indicate that low lead levels in adult males may impair kidney function.
What Is Lead And How Does It Get In Our Bodies?
Lead is a gray, soft metal found in the earth. It has no useful purpose in the human body and is not found there naturally. Lead does not decompose.
Lead usually enters the body through the mouth and is absorbed in the body through the digestive system. But, lead particles may also be breathed in through the lungs. A fetus can be affected by lead if the mother’s blood contains lead.
Lead is eaten by children normally in the form of paint chips from window sills or walls or by ingesting lead contaminated soil. Eating paint chips can cause dangerously high blood lead levels. Contaminated soil may also find its way into children’s mouths. Children may be playing in an area right next to a house where the soil was contaminated from the use of lead paint on the house. The lead paint finds its way into the soil thus contaminating it. Soil in play areas near highways or heavily trafficked streets may have lead in it due to lead from gasoline exhaust deposited from a time when leaded gasoline was the norm. Sand in sandboxes may contain lead if the sand has been taken from a contaminated area like a firing range or if it is right next to a home that has lead paint on it.
Lead particles also can be breathed in. Peeling lead paint can break down into small particles and eventually become particles of dust. Lead dust can also be carried on the clothing and shoes of construction workers, auto mechanics and others who work around lead. House renovations which entail the sanding, blasting or burning of lead paint creates lead dust. In fact, in the 1991 issue of Pediatrics Yona Amitai, a doctor at the Children’s Hospital Medical Center reported that “deleading resulted in significant, albeit transient, increase in blood lead levels.” (7)
Water is also a source of lead contamination. As water sits in plumbing systems lead can dissolve in the water from lead-based solder which is used to join copper pipes and unfortunately it is a substance that melts easily. When water, particularly hot water, moves through the pipes it gathers lead. There are minerals in some water that may coat and contain the lead within a 3-5 year period. By 1990 lead solder had been banned. There is also the problem of lead pipes which still exist in some older homes. A few of these lead pipes remain underground coming from the main water pipe under the street into homes. Fortunately, plastic plastic or copper pipes are now standard in plumbing.
Lead can also be ingested by eating foods stored in cans that have been sealed with solder (cans in the U.S. are no longer manufactured using lead based solder but imported foods may be) or dishes that contain lead paint or glaze. Some foods can also contain lead because the soil in which they were grown contained lead.
Children’s playthings may also be a source of lead. Older playthings may have been painted with a lead-based paint. Also, children play with objects such as batteries, curtain weights and fishing sinkers that contain lead. Toys can also be coated with lead from dust inside the home or from contaminated soil.
There are other sources of lead exposure. They include antique pewter dishes, dyes on some newspapers, magazines and comic books (those containing red, yellow or orange ink), lead based insecticides, folk remedies and cosmetics such as surma, kohl, azarcon and greta, and hobbies that include stained glass making, jewelry making and ceramics. Also if you live near an industrial plant such as lead smelters or battery manufacturers the lead processing pollutes the air and soil.
Note: Use information from the section entitled What Is Lead And How Does It Get Into Our Bodies? for lessons #1-5.
Lesson # 1—How Does Lead Dust Contaminate Our Living Space?
Objective(s)
Children will:
-
*identify how lead from dust can contaminate our living area and get on our bodies and objects such as playthings.
-
*think critically and logically to make the relationships between evidence and explanations (NRC Standard).
-
*employ simple equipment and tools to gather data and extend the senses (NRC Standard).
Materials
Flour
Containers
Magnifying Glasses
Procedure
-
1) Teacher will build background knowledge by reading aloud and discussing
Healthy Earth Healthy Bodies
by Jill C. Wheeler.
-
2) Children will break into small groups.
-
3) Children will blow the flour they have into the air. Children will use magnifying glasses to inspect the area where the flour landed.
-
4) Children will record, report and draw conclusions based on what they discovered.
-
5) Children will discuss how this lead dust can get into their bodies. Chart their responses.
Lesson #2—How does lead from soil get on our bodies and into our homes? Caution: If you suspect the soil on your playground is contaminated with lead do not do this activity and contact your local Health Department.
Objective(s)
Children will
-
*identify how lead from soil gets on our bodies and into our homes.
-
*think critically and logically to make the relationships between evidence and explanations (NRC Standards).
-
*employ simple equipment and tools to gather data and extend the senses ( Project 2061 Benchmarks).
Materials
Playground Toys
Magnifying Glasses
Procedure
-
1) Provide children with play things and let them loose on the playground.
-
2) When the children return to the classroom instruct them that they will become dirt detectives. Ask if and how dirt from the playground gets on them (and their playthings) and back into the classroom. List their responses. Instruct the children that they will become dirt detectives. Their mission, if they choose to accept it, will be to work in small groups to track down all signs of dirt tracked in from the playground.
-
3) Children will record, report and draw conclusions based on what they discovered.
-
4) Ask children: How can this soil end up in our bodies? Chart and discuss children’s responses.
Lesson #3—How Can Lead From Gasoline Get Into The Plants We Eat?
Objective(s)
Children will demonstrate:
-
*how lead from gasoline can contaminate the plants we eat.
-
*scientific investigations involve asking and answering a question and comparing the answer with what scientists already know about the world (NRC Standards).
-
*simple instruments, such as magnifiers, thermometers, and/rulers, provide more information than scientists obtain using only their senses (NRC Standards).
Materials
Celery
Clear Containers
Food Coloring
Magnifying Glasses
Procedure
-
1) Read and sing aloud
Inch by Inch The Garden Song
by David Mallett (1975). Discuss and chart what plants need to grow.
-
2) Discuss how pollutants such as lead based gasoline can contaminate soil and ground water and thereby end up in the plants we eat.
-
2) Place water and food coloring in clear container.
-
3) Place celery, stem side down, into the container and let sit overnight.
-
4) Use magnifying glasses to observe what happened to the celery. Children examine the exterior and interior of the celery stalk.
-
5) Children record, report and draw conclusions about what they observed.
Lesson #4—Head, Shoulders, Knees And Toes, Eyes, Ears, Mouth And Nose
Objective(s)
Children will:
-
*observe that through hand to mouth activity lead can get into our bodies.
-
*construct, read and interpret tables, charts, and
graphs
. (NCTM Standards).
Materials
Brightly Colored Chalk
Procedure
-
1) Read aloud
Those Mean Nasty Dirty Downright Disgusting But Invisible
Germs
by Judith Rice and discuss how germs get into the body.
-
2) Extend the concept of germs entering the body to include that lead can enter the body through hand to mouth activity when hands come in contact with toys and such contaminated by lead dust or soil or by playing in such.
-
3) Children, working in pairs, heavily color their hands with brightly colored chalk.
-
4) Children resume the normal routine of their day.
-
5) In four 15 minute intervals partners check each other for signs of chalk on other areas of their person. Children record their observations.
-
6) Graph and discuss results. Draw conclusions based on results/observations.
Lesson #5—Cold Is better For You!
Objective(s)
Children will:
-
*observe that ice cubes or sugar cubes melt faster in hot water than cold water.
-
*Draw conclusions about whether lead based solder melts quicker in hot water or cold water.
Materials
Clear Containers
Hot and Cold Water
Ice Cubes or Sugar Cubes
Procedure
-
1) Review and discuss information about lead in the water supply.
-
2) Children place ice cubes or sugar cubes in hot and cold water.
-
3) Children observe, record and report on what happened to the ice cubes or sugar cubes.
-
4) Ask children if they think lead based solder will melt quicker in cold water or hot water and why.
How Children Can Be Protected From Lead Poisoning
-
*Children’s hands and faces should be washed with soap and water and dried thoroughly (lead clings to wetness) after playing outside and before eating anything.
-
*Children’s toys and pacifiers should be washed with soap and water frequently and dried thoroughly.
-
*Children shouldn’t play in areas directly next to the house because of possible lead contamination in the soil. Children should play in grassy areas away from the house. Babies should play on a blanket or in a play yard.
-
*If your home contains lead paint remove paint chips found on the floor with a wet cloth. Wet wipe floors and and surfaces, particularly window sills and where the walls meet the floor, at least twice a week. Dry sweeping, dry wiping and vacuuming can spread lead dust. Use rubber gloves and and a detergent that contains 5-8% phosphate such as Trisodium Phosphate, Spic and Span and some automatic dishwashing liquids (check the labels). Do not use these rags for any other purpose and wash them separately. Wipe window sills with a wet cloth before opening and closing and keep opening and closing to a minimum.
-
*If you suspect your home contains lead contact your local health department and have your home professionally inspected for lead. Do-it-yourself kits are also available-Lead Check Swabs 1-800-262-LEAD.1f you use a do-it-yourself kit please also have home professionally inspected. Have abatement professionally done. If renting contact landlord about lead abatement. Remove all personal belongings during abatement and clean up. Well cover anything that cannot be cleaned after lead abatement process. After the abatement and clean up using a phosphate solution have the home re-inspected before anyone moves back in. All residents of the home should be clear of the home while the abatement and clean up process are ongoing.
-
*Children should be well supervised to stop them from eating lead paint or contaminated soil.
-
*If you have peeling paint in your house cover the area with contact or place furniture in front of the spot as a temporary measure. Never try to remove lead paint by burning, sanding or scraping when the home is occupied. This is especially important for pregnant women and children. Great amounts of lead dust and fumes will be dispersed into the air which is very dangerous. Call your local or state Health Department for professional help.
-
*Don’t bring lead contaminated clothing and shoes into the house. Check to see if your work or hobbies are a source of lead exposure.
-
Check for lead sources in other places your child spends time such as daycare centers and schools.
-
*Always use cold tap water for cooking, drinking and for mixing baby formulas. Hot water will contain more lead than cold water. If you haven’t used water for five or six hours flush out the water that has been sitting in the pipes by running the cold water for a few minutes.
-
*Since calcium and iron decrease the absorption of lead in the body make sure children’s diet are rich in foods that contain calcium such as: milk, cheese, ice cream, yogurt, dark green leafy vegetables such as collard and turnip greens, broccoli, salmon or sardines with bones, molasses and cooked rhubarb. Foods that contain iron include meats and poultry, canned tuna fish, dried beans such as black, kidney and pinto, peanut butter, iron fortified cereals, egg yolks and dark green leafy vegetables.
-
-
*MAKE SURE CHILDREN ARE TESTED FOR LEAD FROM 6 MONTHS TO 6 YEARS OF AGE!
*Lesson/Activity #6-
Lesson/Activity #6 will involve a speaker from the Health Department or the Yale New Haven Lead Program speaking to parents and children about lead, how lead poisoning occurs, how to help prevent it and what to do if poisoning occurs. Subsequent to this discussion teacher, parents and students will plan a Lead Poisoning Health Fair.
In preparation for the Lead Poisoning Health Fair children will do the following:
-
*Create lead prevention posters to be displayed in the school community.
-
*Create a public service announcement about lead poisoning prevention and as an advertisement for the health fair.
-
*Create calcium and iron rich snacks such as ice cream and raisin/nut trail mix. Recipes will be written and distributed at the health fair.
-
*Create books, songs, skits and puppet shows.
-
*Involve parents and other members of the community in a letter writing campaign expressing concerns about lead poisoning and encouraging continued legislation and the enforcement of current legislation.
What If A Child Has Lead Poisoning?
-
*Check for the lead source. If a child’s lead level is above a certain level (25 ug dl) the health department will inspect the home for lead sources.
-
*Make sure child’s diet is rich in calcium and iron. Also, make sure tummies aren’t empty. Lead won’t be absorbed as much if food is in the stomach.
-
*Make sure a child is tested regularly. Have other children living in the home tested as well since they are at a high risk for lead poisoning also.
-
*A child may have to be removed from the lead contaminated environment
.
-
*A child may have to take certain medicines to rid the body of lead(at blood lead levels 20-44 ug/dl). There may be side effects to these drugs so it is important to make sure the child is watched carefully and medical appointments are kept. Chelation therapy is indicated when blood lead levels reach 45-69 ug/dl. It is important that a child be in a lead free environment when on medication to remove lead.
-
*The child must be tested frequently because lead that has settled into bones comes out into the blood.
-
*Growth and development of the child should be closely monitored and the child may need extra help from the education and health community
