Patricia M. Bissell
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TEACHER: Let’s imagine that we take a trip to New York and Miami, and visit four families, each from either Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic, Jamaica, or Cuba. We’ll first visit a family in Brooklyn, New York, home to many Puerto Ricans for several decades.
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INTERVIEWER: Where is your country? What is its population and history?
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IMMIGRANT: Puerto Rico is an island in the West Indies between the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. The Dominican Republic is west, and the U.S. Virgin Islands are east. It is a self-governing commonwealth associated with the United States, with a population of about 3 million. After its conquest and settlement by the Spaniard in 1508, it was held by Spain until 1898, when the United States took it over after the Spanish-American War. Spanish and English are both spoken, and the major religion is Roman-Catholic.
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INTERVIEWER: What was it like to live there as a child?
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IMMIGRANT: Many years ago, I lived in a small rectangular hut made of corrugated metal sheets on stilts, hovering in the middle of a circle of red dirt, without running water and electricity, in the country. Even though we studied “Jibaro” (country people) poems and Stories in school, these people were looked down upon as ignorant, and having no manners; I was told not to call myself a “jibaro.”
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INTERVIEWER 1: What kind of food did you eat? What was your family like?
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IMMIGRANT: I ate rice and red beans a lot, with salted codfish and onions. As part of a large family, and the oldest child, I had to help take care of my brothers and sisters. I had aunts, uncles, cousins, and grandparents not too far away. I enjoyed visiting them. The countryside and the beaches were very beautiful. Since the climate is between 70-80 degrees all year round, we could play outside most of the time. We had a hard time getting enough money to buy basic foods, as my father wouldn’t come home sometimes for days, or was unemployed. My mother got a job sewing in a factory nearby. We moved quite a bit on the island, to the city, and then back to the country, as my mother tried to provide for us.
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INTERVIEWER: Why did you come to New York?
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IMMIGRANT. We moved to New York to live with my relatives, so my mother could find some work there, but she was given the most menial type of work simply because she had just arrived from Puerto Rico. Often she would be laid off and I had to help her get welfare, which she did not want. She was very proud of her sewing work.
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INTERVIEWER: What was it like for you in New York?
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IMMIGRANT: I had a very hard time when I came to New York. I had to stay indoors in this apartment building that was not kept up very well. There were always locks on big black doors, and garbage strewn outside. I could not stand the noise. In school, they put me back one grade, even though I had outstanding grades in my school at home. Because I couldn’t speak English that well, they thought that I couldn’t read and write it either. The Puerto Ricans that had lived in New York for some time would not associate with me; neither would the African-Americans, who thought that my family was taking jobs from them. I could not understand this, because I am a mixture of African and Spanish, and many of my relatives are black skinned; we all thought of ourselves as a mixed people, and accepted everyone. The Italian students sat separately also. I also saw Jewish people for the first time. I was often laughed at, because I couldn’t speak English well. I used to hate living here, and felt that we were having the same economic problems as home, but that we were almost living in a jail, compared to where we were in Puerto Rico. My mother finally got a better job, and was able to provide for my brothers and sisters. One of them went to college.
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INTERVIEWER: What kind of music did you have, and what do you like here?
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IMMIGRANT: Music was very important to us at home; we sang special kinds of songs called plenas, bombas, and for Christmas, aguinaldos with guitar and percussion accompaniment. My heritage is African and Spanish; the music combines elements from both parts of these worlds-the high plaintive singing of the Puerto Rican hill farmers, the jibaros or country people and a guitar, the quatro, from the Spanish, and the rhythms, percussion instruments, and call and response patterns between soloist and chorus from the early African slaves.
The plena, a song form of verse-and-refrain, is often satirical and political, with some percussion accompaniment. It was a song that was accompanied with the quatro and guitar, and sung by farmers after a long days work. Another type of song, called the bomba, is a dance and musical style of strongly African nature, and is performed with two or three drums. The jibaro or country music’s influence is found in vocal inflections and phrasings used by Puerto Rican singers.
(See student
activity #2)
We listened to the popular types of latin music on the radio, such as boleros and chachachas. Our Puerto Rican music combined with Cuban music and big band jazz in the Latin barrios of New York in the 60’s, and was called “Salsa.” Today it is a global music, and popular across North and South America, the Caribbean, in Europe, and also Japan. It has slightly different “flavors” wherever it is played. I hear it a lot in New York. I’d like you to dance with me to a salsa piece “Guarere,” by Ray Barretto.
Ray Barretto is called “The King of the Congas.” He has recorded with many famous groups and jazz musicians. He was raised in Spanish Harlem, and is a good exponent of the Puerto Rican self determination, and self-help philosophy. His lyrics are always full of positive thoughts. His band has performed all over the world.
(See student
activity #3 and #4)
FOCUS II: DOMINICAN REPUBLIC IMMIGRANTS AND THEIR MUSIC
(See student activities #5 and #6)
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INTERVIEWER: Where is your country? What is its history?
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IMMIGRANT: My name is Lidia. I am 56 years of age, and my family is from the Dominican Republic. This country occupies the eastern two thirds of the island of Hispaniola, the other third being Haiti, in the Caribbean. It was the first island to be colonized by Spain. Thus, the Spanish language was used, and most Dominicans belonged to the Roman Catholic Church. Santo Domingo, its capital, was founded in 1496, where a university was established by the early Spaniards. The Dominicans declared their independence in 1844, more from Haiti than Spain. A violent history after this time included ruthless dictators and revolutionary anarchy. Despite these misfortunes, this nation has been favored with varied agricultural production by small producers, thus eliminating dependence on one crop and the domination of foreign-controlled interests. Such crops as cocoa, coffee, and sugar have been important. The terrain is dominated by a central mountain chain and several lesser ranges. The climate is warm, and moderated by constant trade winds from the Atlantic, and well suited for agriculture.
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INTERVIEWER: Why do you live here, and what made you come?
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IMMIGRANT: I have lived here in Washington Heights, in New York, like most Dominicans that have emigrated to the U.S. My family came from the Dominican Republic when I was 22. Before that time, the dictator Trujillo had not allowed people to emigrate. In the early 60’s he was assassinated. A politically volatile period ensued. There were coups, and finally the U.S. intervention, before the fighting was quelled. Over 9,000 people began to emigrate each year, fearing the political situation, and facing unemployment, or very low pay. There was no future in the Dominican Republic; there was not even a job for people with college degrees; they came here for a better life. The United States also encouraged Dominicans to leave, making visas somewhat easier to obtain, in order to have agitators leave the country, and generally improve relations between the two countries. Visa applicants had to fill out complex procedural forms, and have money and social contacts to obtain a visa, a symbol of great prestige; thus, only mostly middle class Dominicans were able to come here in the beginning.
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INTERVIEWER: How did you find a job?
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IMMIGRANT: My uncle was the pioneer of the “cadena,” or the chain that linked my family. He had come here first, and worked in a seafood factory. He got me a job there. He also got many of his friends jobs in manufacturing, the garment industry, or retail and wholesale trades. One owned his own bodego (grocery store), but spent many hours at his store, and was held up a couple of times. My uncle didn’t like that kind of a job. People in the Dominican Republic do not realize how hard it is to survive here; they think everyone makes lots of money, such as they see in the advertisements to encourage migration.
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INTERVIEWER: How hard was it to come here, to get a visa? Did you have a good job?
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IMMIGRANT: My uncle got my father a work visa, as his employer said he needed more immigrant workers. Later, my mother and brothers came on resident visas, for family reunification. Every family member and friend contributed to the well being of all the immigrants, and sent money home to our cousins and friends in need. In the beginning, we were making a decent income, but then, there was a decline in manufacturing jobs and an economic recession in the 80’s, and many Dominicans lost their jobs, or were laid off for some time. Now there is great poverty.
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INTERVIEWER: How do you like it here? Do you feel part of this country?
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IMMIGRANT: It seems a lot like the Dominican Republic here; we have newspapers, bodegas that have our traditional foods, such as plantains, and restaurants serving Dominican specialties. Places are named as they are in the Dominican Republic, for example “Quisqueya (Dominican) Heights.” My family, as most Dominicans, have been active in education, voting for members of the school boards, one being principal of a public school, and another even having been elected to the New York City Council (Linares). The Catholic church also played a big role in the life of my family and friends; this institution helped us adjust to this country-everyone was involved in the church!
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INTERVIEWER: What special problems do you face today?
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IMMIGRANT: Dominicans have many problems today. There is discrimination because of their color; they are often called “Black” like African Americans. This term has a negative connotation in the Dominican Republic; only the Haitians are called “Black,” and are disdained by the society. Dominicans consider themselves descendants of the Spanish and indigenous populations.
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There are so many tensions with Puerto Ricans who say Dominicans take jobs for lower pay, and African-Americans, who feel that the Dominicans are foreign merchants taking advantage of the economic conditions of disadvantaged people. Drug dealing is also a problem, particularly with cocaine; young people see a great need to “succeed,” and, unfortunately, some use this way to demonstrate their “success.”
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INTERVIEWER: How different are the cultures?
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IMMIGRANT: Cultural differences have disrupted many families. Families in the Dominican Republic are commonly patriarchal; that is, the senior male is the head of the household, and is the authority figure-he supports the family. The wife’s place is in the home. The man has special privileges. The wife is given a small allowance. The transition in New York to a two income household has presented problems, and changes have had to take place, not only in the budget, but also in sharing household chores. My parents gradually worked out their problems. Some couples divorced, because of the great disruptions in social practices that have occurred. Even though women are making money, they most often consider it supplemental and supportive of their husband’s income.
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Another difference in the two cultures is the raising of children. Girls can be publicly disciplined in the Dominican Republic. Parents fear the child abuse laws in this country, and do not feel free to discipline their children. The sons have been given more liberty to socialize outside the home; the girls have been protected, or, if they go out, to be chaperoned.
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INTERVIEWER: How have Dominicans adjusted?
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IMMIGRANT: A very important factor in adjusting to this country is the ability to have a foothold in both places.
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With communications and travel so different than at the turn of the century, it is easy for Dominicans to be both “here” and “there.” Also, today, there is more tolerance of multiculturalism, and courses have been added in the public school curriculum that educate students more about the Dominican Republic and other Caribbean countries. Another factor that contributes to the transnationalism is the economy; some Dominicans do business both in their country of origin and New York. The family feels more stable to be able to seek employment in two economies; if one is poor, the other may have good opportunities. They also feel appreciated for their achievements in their own country, as opposed to how they feel valued by white, mainstreamed America.
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INTERVIEWER: What is your music like, and what kind of music do you have?
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IMMIGRANT: Music and dancing are important to the Dominican people. As children, we heard merengues and boleros played on the radio; children danced at our school frequently. There was always dancing in the bars and dance halls. People commonly sang.(9)
The music of the Dominican Republic is rich in both Hispanic and African styles, but the only form that made a mark in the United States was the meringue, a country dance with a marked-sometimes almost polka-like-2/4 time. The early 50’s saw the popularity of this music in New York, when Angel Viloria organized a group playing the traditional rural style associated with the northern Dominican province of Cibao. The basic dance was incorporated into a permanent part of social dances, its brisk, sideways-stepping two-step swing being relatively easy to master.
The basic country meringue group consisted of accordion, a distinctive metal guiro scraper, and a double-ended barrel-shaped drum called a tambora, played with a stick and muted with one hand. A saxophone was also common. Meringue was very popular during the dictatorship of Rafael Trujillo, who held power from 1930 until his assassination in 1961. It became a symbol of national pride; large meringue orchestras were developed, with piano and brass to cater to the new audiences. Political themes were not expressed, however.
Despite the later change of instruments made after 1960, such as the use of electric guitar, keyboards and synthesizer, as heard in the famous Dominican Republican musician Juan Luis Guerra’s band “4:40,” the rhythm of meringue has changed very little. The tambora keeps a fast pulse going, working around conga patterns, while a bass drum, operated with a foot pedal provides a monotonous thumping 1234 beat. Dancing routines occur along with usually 3 vocalists, who swap the lead part with dancing. Guerra studied literature in Santo Domingo and his lyrics reflect enthusiasm for poets like Neruda and Vallejo. He states that:
“Meringue-along with bachata-is the traditional folk music of the Dominican Republic. It is popular in local bars and dancehalls. My group, “4:40,” has changed both the sound and the lyrics. We include social and political themes as well as the traditional love themes. We have blended elements of jazz into our music. We’ve modernized the traditional meringue, but we want to play music that appeals to everyone at home, and use lyrics that they can identify with, such as the words to “A Visa for a Dream.” (10)
(See student activities #7 and #8)
FOCUS III: CUBAN IMMIGRANTS AND THEIR MUSIC
(See student activities #9 and #10)
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INTERVIEWER 1: Where is your country? What is it like? What do you export?
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IMMIGRANT: I was born and grew up near Havana, Cuba. I emigrated with my family to Miami. Cuba is the largest island in the Caribbean Sea, and less than 100 miles south of Florida. Its capital is Havana. It is called the “Pearl of the Antilles,” because it is so beautiful. It has mountains and rolling hills, gentle slopes and grasslands, and a coastline with sandy beaches and coral reefs. The semitropical climate is stable and comfortable with cool ocean breezes, and sometimes violent hurricanes around August and September. The exports include sugar, coffee, and citrus fruits. Common foods include rice and beans, sugar cane, and root crops like cassava and sweet potatoes.
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INTERVIEWER: What is its history?
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IMMIGRANT: It became a colony of Spain in the fifteenth century, and remained so until 1898, when the U.S. helped defeat Spain; slavery ended at this time. Thus, Spanish was the public language, and the Roman Catholic church was predominant. The dictator Batista ruled from 1930-1959. Castro overthrew this regime and set up the Cuban Communist Party. Initially, there were benefits for the people, especially for the African-Cuban population. Integration and better living conditions were promoted. However, as Cuba became a socialist state, the economy suffered, and food was rationed. People sought refuge in the United States. Thirty years of political migration brought over 1 million Cubans here, each wave or group from a different background, and given different opportunities here, depending on when they came.
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INTERVIEWER: Why did you come to the U.S.?
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IMMIGRANT: My father worked for a food processing business owned by the United States. When the Castro revolution occurred in 1959, we had to leave, as he began to nationalize companies. We were literally pushed out of the country. I was a teenager then, and always thought that I would be returning home, when the political and economic climates were improved.
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INTERVIEWER: How were you helped as an immigrant? Were other Cubans helped as much?
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IMMIGRANT: The U.S. began a trade embargo, cut the sugar quota, and backed the exile invasion of Cuba, the Bay of Pigs, a tragic mistake, to overthrow Castro. Diplomatic ties were cut to Cuba. However, we were helped by the U.S. Cuban Refugee Program. Later, my relatives came over on the President Johnson’s “Freedom Flights.” Two other groups that came were the Marielitos, who came from Mariel Harbor, and who were portrayed as undesirable, yet found to be mostly young men, of African ancestry, and mostly from the mainstream of the Cuban economy. They had jobs as carpenters, machine operators, or bus or truck drivers, for example. After the collapse of communism in Europe, the economic crises became so bad, that another group of immigrants came, the Balseros, who came on rafts, or other makeshift vessels, risking death. Many died at sea. However welcome these two groups were in Miami, they were the poor Cubans, and, as such, were in the same status as before, in relation to the upper middle class Cubans. Life was not easy for them. Abrupt policy changes by the U.S. government changed Cuban’s refugee status; a new agreement allows 20,000 visas a year, and Cubans can no longer claim refugee status.
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INTERVIEWER: What was it like in Miami?
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IMMIGRANT: Because we immigrated in the 60’s, and went to Miami, life was very good. We were the white immigrants. This city is home to a Cuban enclave; over 25,000 businesses are owned by Hispanics, including banks, insurance companies, and shipping firms. Because we brought resources, such as money, skills, and education, concentrated in one place, and were helped by the U.S. government, both in aid, and in having a direct line to the centers of political power, we succeeded in establishing our own community. We continued to maintain Spanish as the public language, and were able to offer jobs to the new immigrants from latin countries. Cubans have become mayors, and have been elected to the City Commission, and the U.S. House of Representatives.
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INTERVIEWER: Have you had any special problems?
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IMMIGRANT: I have experienced African-American antagonism, due to the business success of our people here, and the social distance created by the enclave. Also, I have seen much racial discrimination towards the Afro-Cubans by society in general.
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INTERVIEWER: What was the music like in Cuba?
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IMMIGRANT: Music is said to be Cuba’s greatest export; the famous Cuban singer Celia Cruz says that “ salsa (now a popular global music) is Cuban music with another name—son, rumba, mambo, and chachacha.”‘(11) Such musicians have an important role as immigrants attempt to maintain their identity. Their songs would include references to themes that we can relate to, such as the beauty of the land, or particular religious symbols, or they refer to situations in our home country that we can identify with.
Cuban music has both African and Spanish roots. The African roots of Cuban music include not only rhythms, but the use of percussion instruments, call and response styles in the singing, and incorporation of some aspects of Afro-Cuban religions, such as Santeria. Its Spanish roots are heard in the guitar style and as explained in Puerto Rican music the high plaintive singing style of the hill farmers, as well as the Spanish ten-line decima verses and southern Spanish melody.
Around 1840, slaves from the West African countries of Nigeria, Cameroon, Benin, and the Congo made up half the population; Afro-Cuban religions were practiced. The slave trade from Africa lasted in Cuba until 1900, the time of the Spanish-American war. African musical ideas remained stronger here than anywhere else. Yoruba and Congolese religious cults, and the Abakwa secret society from eastern Nigeria remained powerful throughout the island.
Today the Santeria religion reveres African deities combined with Catholic saints for respectability. Dances and music are performed in honor of these deities-each has its own color; Chango, spirit of war and fire red, Oshun, goddess of love and water is yellow. Their Christian counterparts are St. Barbara and Virgen de las Caridad del Cobre, patron saint of Cuba. Each deity has rhythms played by the hourglass-shaped bata drums and shekere rattles. The music for religious rituals is the heartbeat of Cuban music. It has great physical and emotional power over its participants.
(See student activity #11)
The influence of Cuban music on the music of the United States has been one of the greatest, most varied, and longest lasting of the countries of the Caribbean. The “habanera” was the first Cuban style that influenced music in the United States. It derived from the contradanza, a Spanish version of line dance. Afro-Cubans added a “lift” or “swing” to it, and spread into other forms of music.
(See
student activity #12)
The Cuban style that had the most direct impact of our music was very different from this habanera. The “son,” basis of the 30’s rumba craze, is considered the first rhythm invented by the Cubans. It began as a rural form accompanied by percussion; its newness was a sense of polyrhythm (several rhythms at the same time) with a unity of tempo (pace of beat). They added a marimbula (African bass instrument), maracas, claves, bongo, and later conga and trumpets. Americans were exposed to Cuban music in Havana, a resort city. Cuban and Puerto Rican music, and American jazz styles were blended in the 60’s in New York to create what is called “salsa.”
Mongo Santamaria (from Cuba) has been called the “Master of the Conga,” one of the finest percussionists in the world. His grandfather came from Africa. In the 70’s he came to New York with a traveling revue, and was immediately hired by a band there; later he formed his own band, and his music became famous; he performed around the world.
(See student activity #13)
The basic building block of Cuban music is the “clave,” a 3-2 or a 2-3 rhythmic pattern, which is fundamental to the music. It has a strong first part, and answering second part, like the call-and-response structure common in African music. Almost all Cuban styles display this blend of musical elements. (See student activity #14)
The rumba is for voices and percussion, with its roots in religion. There are 3 types, the yambu, guaguanco, and columbia, slow, somewhat faster, and the last a solo male dance and most acrobatic. Rhythms include claves that play the pattern “the clave” which begins the rumba. The instruments include the cata, a wooden drum played with sticks, the maruga, an iron shaker, conga drums, wooden packing cases, and bata drums(3 double-skinned drums of Yoruba). The form of the rumba is a long lyrical vocal melody by a soloist or duet with muttering drums. With a cue, the rhythm tightens up, the chorus joins in a call and response section, and the quinto, the lead drummer, improves wildly under the singer’s inspirations. (See student activities #15, #16, #17, and #18)