Those of us who work with disadvantaged students in the inner city have both intuitive and practical knowledge that children are not fully able to access their academic potential. According to McLoyd (1998), the access deficit starts even before the child is born into their socioeconomically disadvantaged environment. McLoyd discusses how inadequate nutrition and lack of prenatal care starts infants in an already "at risk" state for a number of physical problems. She goes on to discuss how the environmental stresses of hazardous physical environments (such as lead paint), harsh inconsistent parenting, lack of medical care, and less home based intellectual stimulation can lead to "diminished cognitive functioning" in children living in poverty. By the time these children arrive at school, all of these factors arrive with them. The vernacular used in the schools is "emotional baggage." A traditional view on academic achievement and how it is accomplished requires a new approach that can relieve the burden of this "emotional baggage."
Traditional views on intelligence have undergone tremendous change and growth in recent years. Sternberg has been one of the leading writers in this area (e.g., Sternberg, 1999). He states that there is probably more to intelligence than just the traditional "general factor" theory. The g-factor theory postulates one basic overriding form of intelligence that permeates all abilities. In this Triarchic Theory, he outlines three aspects of intelligence, namely, analytic, creative and practical. He defines analytical intelligence as "abilities involved in analyzing, evaluating, critiquing, and comparing and contrasting things." Analytic intelligence approximates the g factor. When analytical intelligence is used internally, it correlates somewhat with Gardner's intra personal intelligence. Gardner's intrapersonal intelligence has the added component of emotions and feelings. Second, he defines Creative Intelligence as abilities that involve "creating, exploring, discovering, inventing and imaging." Thirdly he defines Practical Intelligence as "applying, using, implementing and putting into practice." Sternberg discusses not only Gardner's theory of Multiple Intelligences, but also the notion of Emotional Intelligence first popularized by Goleman. Though Sternberg criticizes Gardner's theory for lacking empirical bases and also Goleman's theory of emotional intelligence for inconsistencies in research, he overlaps some aspects of their theories in his own Triarchic Theory of Intelligence.
Gardner bases his theory of Multiple Intelligence on previous brain research. He differs from Sternberg and the many g theorists in that Gardner does not conduct empirical research to support his theory, but rather draws from only existing data and evidence. In this sense, there is no direct testing of his ideas, by him or by anyone else. Gardner's theory suggests that intelligence be based on "multiple intelligences". He defines eight different criteria or areas of intelligence, which have distinct qualities and are independent abilities, from a brain function perspective. For the purposes of this unit, the focus will be on improving personal intelligence, which includes inter-personal and intra-personal intelligences, through "Quiet Time" activities. Gardner talks about intra- and inter-personal intelligences as being connected to each other in their relationship to frontal lobe activity. Gardner (1983) defines inter-personal intelligence as the ability to be aware of and make discriminating observations of other individuals with regards to their moods, dispositions, motivations and goals. He defines intra-personal intelligence as the ability to access one's own range of feelings or emotions; the ability to immediately discriminate among these feelings and to use them to guide one's behavior. He discusses how the frontal lobes seem to process two kinds of information of particular importance, namely inter- and intra-personal intelligence. Inter-personal intelligence is our ability to know other people, to react appropriately to them; and to engage in activities with them. Intra-personal intelligence is our sensitivity to our own feelings, our own wants and fears, and our own personal histories. Gardner gives examples of studies that show the effects of injury to this area of the brain and their effect on personal intelligence. An example would be an injury to the orbital area of the frontal lobe, which he states, " is likely to produce hyperactivity, irritability, and insouciance."
Eastern views on intelligence are fundamentally very different from traditional Western views and can differ also from contemporary views like Sternberg and Gardner. According to Kesson (2002), the Eastern model of the psyche encompasses the entire mind/body system of the human being, including the material body, subtle energies and the energy field outside the body. This model calls on one to suspend deeply ingrained dualistic models of body and mind.
An Eastern view of intelligence is the searching for a "pure intelligence or pure knowledge " (Das, 1994). Ordinary knowledge is "tainted" due to each person's present life situational stresses or their individual desires. The mind's cruder activities interfere with accessing pure knowledge. The mind is likely to be inconsistent, inhibited, and erratic and a discriminating intelligence is needed in order to penetrate to a pure state. Practicing a technique to develop this discriminating intelligence and to help one to form some objectivity, even with one's self, is thought of as extremely important for the attainment of pure intelligence. Witnessing the activities of your own mind in order to attain this pure knowledge is fundamental to the Eastern view. Hence techniques like meditation and yoga that quiet the physical body and the mind are a natural outflow of this thinking. Eastern views of intelligence have some similarities to Gardner's ideas about intra-personal intelligence and can be even stretched to connect with Sperman's g factor if thought of as a general "energy" in the mind. If you can improve access to this "energy," then you can improve overall brain functioning.
If yoga, guided relaxation, meditation, and visualization affect the brain in a positive way, thereby fostering an enhanced personal internal environment for learning, then what is happening to the brain during this time? Does "turning down" stress and the outside environment, in order to give students access to an internal "Quiet Time", affect their chemical metabolism and their brain? Does it affect frontal lobe activity? Why is that important?
Some researchers suggest that the frontal lobe function is what makes humans unique (Shimaura, 1994). Frontal lobe function is seen as primary in intellectual reasoning including tasks such as decision-making and problem solving. One currently popular notion in the research literature is that the frontal lobes serve executive functions by organizing and integrating mental components or processes. It explains why patients with frontal-lobe damage appear to act impulsively or without forethought. There is brain chemistry for optimal prefrontal cortex cognitive function (PFC) according to Arnsten (1998). Stress releases a family of neuromodulators called catecholamines, which in effect slow, or shut down, prefrontal cortex brain function. This is the area of the brain that, according to Arnsten (1998), enhances planning organizing, and "working memory". Stress releases too much of these neuromodulators and diminishes prefrontal lobe function. It is believed that people with ADHD do not produce enough of these neuromodulators. The effect of too much or too little neuromodulators is the same. There is a delicate balance of catecholamines necessary for efficient frontal lobe function; whereby too much or too little can cause impaired functioning. The brain chemistry must be just right.
Shimarua (1994) differs from traditional views on intelligence, stating that "parts of the cerebral cortex contribute to different aspects of intellectual function and that general intelligence cannot be attributed to any single area of the brain." This strongly supports Howard Gardner's theory of Multiple Intelligence. Shimarua and Gardner are reaching the same conclusions based on the research Shimarua further states that a " more effective supervisor (i.e. frontal lobe) can facilitate the organization and integration of intellectual functions." Some g theorists have supported the idea that frontal lobe mechanisms serve as an informational bottleneck and that working memory capacity is synomous with g since it permeates all or our abilities. The recent meditation/brain research studies are looking carefully at what effect meditation or relaxation response training is having on all aspects of the brain, including frontal lobe activity.
Herzog, Lele, Kuwer, Langen, Kops, and Feinendegen (1990) found that frontal lobe regional glucose metabolism during yoga meditative relaxation response was increased and that there was a more pronounced reduction in primary and secondary visual centers. Lazar, Bush, Gollub, Fricchiione Khalsa, and Benson (2000), cited fMRI studies showing that during meditation there were increases in activity of the prefrontal and parietal cortices, hippocampus/parahippocampus, temporal lobe, pregenual anterior cingulate cortex, striatum, and pre- and post-central gyri. The results indicated that the practice of meditation activates neural structure involved in attention and control of the autonomic nervous system. Both of these studies emphasis the changes in the frontal lobe regions of the brain. If techniques like the relaxation response method or a simple children's meditation can in fact bring about positive changes in the frontal lobe region, then they might help increase not only access to the important functions of this region but overall brain function. A key question that remains unanswered is whether these meditation "state" changes have any lasting benefits on brain and cognitive functioning.
The research evidence is strong that balanced brain chemistry is important to good brain functioning, and stress clearly has an effect on frontal lobe "brain chemistry" by decreasing that functioning. There is also strong evidence that meditation can have a positive effect on frontal lobe activity and overall brain functioning. If we want our students to get the best "access" to their brains, then it is important to give them techniques like "Quiet Time". These techniques could reduce stress and help them gain access to their already existing feelings of peacefulness and caring inside themselves, giving them an optimal internal environment for good brain functioning. Most educators and parents want students to get the most out of their schooling, and these techniques have been tried, with success, in several pilot programs.