Gail G. Hall
In late 1776 General George Washington, Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army, desperately needed a victory. Defeated in New York, Washington and his troops retreated across New Jersey and crossed the Delaware River into Pennsylvania on Dec. 8 just as the British reached Trenton. Camping on the western banks of the Delaware in mid December 1776, not only were the men cold, hungry and demoralized, they were ending their one-year enlistments at the end of the month and looking forward to going home. This would leave Continental Army is desperate shape. The Continental Congress, meeting in Philadelphia, was also demoralized and ready to flee to Baltimore which they did on Dec.12 The situation was grim.
On Dec. 17, the British Army went into winter quarters in New York leaving garrisons at Trenton, Princeton, and several other locations. The troops defending Trenton were Hessian mercenaries led by Colonel Johann Gottlieb Rall. Already contemptuous of the fighting ability of the Americans, the Hessian troops relaxed for their Christmas celebrations and Rall partied most of the night.
Washington developed a plan for a three-pronged surprise attack across the Delaware River at dawn on December 26. Cadwalader's troops would cross the river at Bordentown and keep that garrison occupied; Ewings's would cross at Trenton and cut off an escape route. Washington and the main division of 2,400 men and 18 cannon would cross at McKonkey's Ferry, nine miles above Trenton. However, only Washington's contingent of 2,4000 men made it across the ice-choked and dangerous river. The help of John Glover and his Marblehead Massachusetts boatmen was crucial. Already delayed and facing a terrible snowstorm, Washington led his men to Trenton convinced that they had lost the element of surprise. Early in the morning of December 26, 1776,Washington encircled and attacked Trenton. The Hessians, sleeping off their Christmas celebration, were caught completely unaware. Rall, trying to rally his mention, was shot and later died. Nearly a thousand Hessians were captured and surrendered their army colors. The cost to the Americans was four slightly wounded men.
Washington then retreated back across the Delaware River in order to rest his men. On Dec. 30 the general made an impassioned plea to the troops to reenlist. They recrossed to occupy Trenton. On Dec.31, Washington had Thomas Paine's newly published words from the
American Crisis
read to the troops in order to persuade them to re-enlist, promising a bonus. The majority signed up for another twelve months.
General Cornwallis moved into Trenton on Jan. 2, 1777. Believing he had Washington trapped against the Delaware River, he rejected the advice to attack at once, saying he would "bag the fox tomorrow". Washington withdrew during the night, leaving his campfires burning. With muffled cannon wheels, the American troops slipped around the British and marched towards Princeton. General Hugh Mercer was leading American troops to protect the advancing left flank when he and his men were discovered by the British who charged with bayonets. General Mercer was killed. Washington's troops advanced. The small British garrison was caught completely by surprise and retreated into Nassau Hall in the college where it was defeated. Washington then withdrew to the northeast and went into winter quarters.
The Importance of the Battles of Trenton and Princeton
David Ramsay, Washington's first biographer, wrote succinctly of the importance of these battles in 1814: "The victories at Trenton and Princeton produced the most extensive effects, and had a decided influence on subsequent events. Philadelphia was saved for that winter. Jersey was recovered. The drooping spirits of the Americans were revived. The gloomy apprehensions which had lately prevailed, of their being engaged in a hopeless cause, yielded to a confidence in their General and their army, and in the ultimate success of their struggles for liberty and independence " (Ramsay).
Others agreed: Ambrose Serle, secretary to Admiral Howe, wrote in his diary on Christmas eve about "the dying Groans of Rebellion" but on the day after Trenton wrote: "I was exceedingly concerned…as it will intend to revive the drooping Spirits of the Rebels and increase their Force" (McDowell, 109).
"His (Washington's) brilliant campaign had forced Howe to abandon nearly all of New Jersey, and brought hope to what has seemed a hopeless cause" (American Heritage, 207). Washington's success meant that the British would rethink their plan of holding down large areas with a network of posts because it had proved not only impractical but dangerous. Washington demonstrated that he could be both mobile and daring. In addition the changing fortunes of the Continental Army influenced …those to take up the American cause (Flexner, 98).
The Christmas Campaign of 1776: Many Voices
Notes to Teachers about Teaching Strategies
The main concepts of the unit are reflected in the true/false statements in the kick-off lesson. Working collaboratively, the teaching team should decide, based on their knowledge of the students, time and resources available, etc., how to structure the learning activities. Students could work in five groups (one for each painting) or with a partner (one pair for each of the 12 questions.) Another arrangement is to have three groups: one studying the crossing, one the battle of Trenton and the last the battle of Princeton.
Some of the learning activities could happen in the classroom, others in a computer lab or the library media center (which also has computers.) In addition to the recommended titles in Resources for Classroom and Student Use, as many materials as possible should be available for students to use from interlibrary loans to printouts from good Internet sites that students have discovered at home in this resource-based unit. Helpful materials would include additional biographies of Washington and the other figures, military and art histories, as well as general monographs about the period.
Guiding Questions for the unit
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• Why is the Christmas Campaign important to the American Revolution?
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• What qualities made General George Washington a successful leader?
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• Kick-Off Lesson: What Do You Know About the Christmas Campaign of 1776?
This first lesson introduces the individuals and events of the Christmas Campaign. This activity will be repeated at the end of the unit.
Materials
Blank paper for students to record answers; pens/pencils; chart paper for teacher to record "What We know or think we know"; slides, transparencies, color copies or websites for each of the following paintings
•
Washington Crossing the Delaware, Dec.26, 1776
by Emanuel Leutze, 1851
•
General George Washington at the Battle of Trenton
by John Trumbull, 1792
•
The Capture of the Hessians at Trenton, December 26, 1776
by John Trumbull, 1786
•
The Death of General Mercer at the Battle of Princeton, January 2, 1777
by John Trumbull
•
George Washington at Princeton
by Charles Willson Peale, 1779
Directions
Show first slide (
Washington Crossing the Delaware
) and ask students what they know or think they know. On chart paper titled "What We Know or Think We Know about George Washington or the Crossing of the Delaware (and Following Battles)." Accept and record all answers without comment. Tell the students that they will be learning why this event and the battles that followed were important in the Revolutionary War. They will also learn about George Washington's qualities that made him a successful leader.
Each student should fold his paper in half, write his name and numbers 1 to 12 on one half of the paper. Ask them to answer TRUE or FALSE to each statement as it is read.
As each slide is displayed, read its title and the true/false statement. DO NOT GIVE THE ANSWER!
Painting #1:
Washington Crossing the Delaware, Dec.26, 1776
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1. This painting was painted in Germany 75 years after the event.
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(TRUE: It was painted by Emanuel Leutze in 1851 in Dusseldorf.)
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2. This painting accurately portrays how Washington and his men crossed the Delaware River.
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(FALSE: Washington did not stand, the Durham boats are much larger, the event happened in the night not at dawn; etc.)
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3. After Washington and his men crossed the Delaware they were an easy march to Trenton.
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(FALSE: They still faced a nine-mile march through snow and sleet to get to Trenton.
Painting #2:
General George Washington at the Battle of Trenton
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4. Because this battle only concerned a small outpost in New Jersey, it is not considered important.
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(FALSE: This battle, the first won by Washington, changed the attitudes of Americans and British. See main text for more information.)
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5. General George Washington refused to use spies against the British.
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(FALSE: Washington used spies throughout the war. John Honeyman was a double agent whose information about the Hessian positions was crucial.
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6. After this battle on Dec. 26 most of the American soldiers, who had enlisted for only a year, would return home.
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(FALSE: Although they were planning to go home, most soldiers responded to Washington's plea to stay.)
Painting #3:
The Capture of the Hessians at Trenton, December 26, 1776
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7. Hessians were highly trained and hired-for-pay soldiers from Europe who respected the military tactics of the American soldiers.
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(FALSE. The Hessians had contempt for the fighting abilities of the Americans and also thought that American battle tactics like sniping and ambushes were dishonorable.)
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8. The Hessian commander Johann Rall recovered from his wound and had a major role in later battles.
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(FALSE: Colonel Rall died from his injuries in a house in own.)
Painting #4:
The Death of General Mercer at the Battle of Princeton, January 2, 1777
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9. Bayonets played a very important role in this early part of the battle of Princeton.
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(TRUE: The bayonet charge by British Colonel Mawhood succeeded because the surprised Americans were armed with slow-loading rifles which can not use bayonets. This put the Americans at a great disadvantage.)
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10. General Washington would never have charged into the middle of a battle as the painting shows here.
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(FALSE: Although there are few paintings of Washington in the midst of a battle, he was known for his bravery under fire and rallied his troops under fire.)
Painting #5:
General George Washington at Princeton
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11. This portrait and others of Washington by Charles Willson Peale are believed to look more like the real Washington than Gilbert Stuart's portraits, the one on the dollar bill.
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(TRUE: Peale painted seven portraits of Washington including one before the war. His paintings of Washington are considered more accurate.)
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12. Everyone agrees that the battle at Princeton was a military success for the Americans.
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(FALSE: Another point of view that Washington was really retreating to winter quarters when the Army met up with the British.)
Do not give the students the answers. Collect the papers and keep until the end of the unit. Also keep the chart "What We Know…"for later use.