Gail G. Hall
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• View "The Leader Emerges," a 10 minute segment from the video "1776" (vol.2 of the video series
The American Revolution
by the History Channel.) This excellent but brief introduction to George Washington includes comments from historians; paintings (including the Peale
Washington
,) photographs, and quotes from the major players. Record all adjectives and/or phrases used to describe Washington. Review and discuss.
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• View "Trenton and Princeton", a 10 minute segment from "Washington and Arnold" (vol.2 of the video series
The American Revolution
by the History Channel.) which summarizes the two battles.
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• Read selections from a variety of secondary sources. These materials can be placed "on reserve" and accessible to all students. See Resources for Classroom and Student Use for titles.
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• Analyze historical and military maps, including those of the period (primary sources.)
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• "Plan of the Operations of General Washington against the King's Troops in New Jersey from the 26th of December 1776 to the 3rd January 1777 by William Faden." This map, in the
American Heritage Book of the Revolution
(page 202) and online in the
American Memory Collection at the Library of Congress: The American Revolution and Its Era: Maps and Charts of North American and the West Indies, 1750-1789
(http://memory.loc.gov) shows the movements of the American and the British and was prepared by a British mapmaker.
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• "New Jersey: 'Cockpit of the Revolution'."
The Papers of George Washington
. (http://www.Virginia.edu/gwpapers/series/rev1/omap.html) is a map of the entire state.
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• "The Revolution in America: the Battle of Trenton and the Battle of Princeton" U.S. Military Academy. (http://www.deanusma.edu/history/dhistorymaps/) shows positions of the troops.
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• "The Battle of Trenton" from Billias'
Gen. John Glover and His Marblehead Mariners
(http://1-14th.com/HistTrentonBattle.htm)
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• "The Battle of Trenton" in McDowell's
The Revolutionary War
pages 104 and 105 is a panoramic view with a key showing important locations such as Washington's command post and Knox's cannons.
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• Generic Lesson for Map Analysis
The following format for a lesson is the one recommended by the Library Media Department of the New Haven Public Schools for the teaching of skills. This is a generic lesson plans that can be adapted to a variety of contents and grade levels.
Title: "It's on the Map!"
Grades: 5-12
Information Literacy Standard: Read and interpret visual and statistical information in maps
Performance Objective: Analyze a historical map
Materials: Map analysis worksheet "It's on the Map!, a map for demonstration, other maps for individual or small group practice
Procedure
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1. Initiation: "Topographic maps, political maps, weather maps, road maps, maps are everywhere." Give some examples of everyday use. State that we can also learn maps to learn about the past. There are specific things to look for and think about when using historical maps.
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2. Input & modeling: Using a historical map model examine the physical qualities (Handwritten? Scale? Compass? Legend? Features (political, topographical, etc.) Date(s)? Creator?
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3. Guided practice & checking for understanding: Discuss the map using the questions on the worksheet.
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4. Independent practice: Students (individually or in small groups) examine other maps. And complete the worksheet.
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5. Closure/Review: Does the map accurately portray the scene described? What did you learn from this map that you may not have learned from another source?
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"It's on the Map!"
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Physical qualities of the map (check one or more):
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____ Compass ____ Handwritten____ Date____ Notations____ Scale
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____ Other ____ Name of mapmaker ____ Title___ Legend (key)
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Date of Map: ________ Creator of Map: _____________________________
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Where was the map produced? ____________________________
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Map Information
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A. List three things in this map that you think are important:
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1. _____________________________________________
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2. _____________________________________________
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3. _____________________________________________
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B. Why do you think this map was drawn?
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____________________________________________________________
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____________________________________________________________
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C. What evidence in the map suggests why it as drawn?
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____________________________________________________________
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____________________________________________________________
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D. What information does the map add to the other accounts of this event?
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____________________________________________________________
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____________________________________________________________
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E. Does the information in this map support or contradict information that you have read about this event? Explain.
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____________________________________________________________
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____________________________________________________________
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F. Write a question to the mapmaker that is left unanswered by this map.
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____________________________________________________________
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____________________________________________________________ (Adapted from the National Archives and Records Administration)
• Analyze primary source documents.
Letters: Washington's to Gen. McDougall on Dec.25 briefly describes the battle at Trenton. (http://americanrevolution.org/delxing.html) and any from his
Writings
, especially his letter to John Hancock on Dec. 26 telling of the trials his men faced;" 'The difficulty of passing the River in a very severe Night , and their March thro'a violent Storm of Snow and Hail, did not seem to abate their Ardour." (p.264). (see Classroom and Student Resources)
Journals: "An Eyewitness Account of the Battle of Trenton Written by an Officer on Washington's Staff" reports his perspective from Dec. 23-27 (http://www.state.nj.us/state/history/trenton.html). In Meltzer's
The American Revolutionaries: A History in Their Own Words
students can "hear" the voices of patriots, loyalists, women, solders, etc.
Students should consider these questions when examining primary source documents: Who created the item and why? Was it created through a spur-of-the-moment act, a routine transaction, or a thoughtful deliberative process? Did the recorder have first hand knowledge of the event or report what others saw or heard? When was the piece created at time of the event, immediately after, after some lapse of time (if so, how long)? What opinions or interests may the recorder have had that influence what was recorded? Did the recorder wish to inform or persuade others? Did the recorder have any reasons to be honest or dishonest? Was the source meant to be public or private? Was it produced for personal use, for one or more individuals, or for a large audience? ("Analysis of Primary Sources"http:memory.loc.gov>)
• Study history paintings. Here is another generic lesson that can be adapted to any painting.
Generic Lesson: Object Analysis of a History Painting or Portrait
Title: Take a Closer Look at a History Painting or Portrait!
Grade: 5-12
Information Literacy Standard: Obtain historical data and formulate historical questions from encounters with art
Performance Objective: Describe, deduce, develop questions
Materials: Worksheet* or plain paper folded into thirds for each student; slide or transparency of painting; pencils; additional reproductions of paintings; chart paper titled "What I See/What I Deduce/Questions" and marker.
Procedure:
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1. Initiation: Teacher discusses that art can be a window to view the past and that history paintings or portraits can offer special insights and initiate questions. But instead of jumping from one thing to another in our discussion of the painting, we will follow a systematic approach called "object analysis" which has 3 steps; description, deduction, and speculation or asking questions.
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2. Input & modeling: The teacher models step one, description, examining one area of the painting or topic like people, architecture, natural forms, etc., inventorying the visual information and recording (or has a student record) the items. Teacher then talks about the relationship of the viewer to the painting emotionally, intellectually, sensually, and makes a deduction, based on information already recorded Teacher then asks a question based on the deduction. (Examples: ice in the river > extreme cold > did the time of year influence the decision about the crossing of the Delaware?) (See above: "Object Analysis of George Washington at Princeton")
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3. Guided practice & checking for understanding: Students individually or in groups repeat the process with another area of the painting, another topic, etc. Student/groups share and the information is recorded. Teacher asks guiding questions if necessary.
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4. Independent practice: Individuals or groups follow the process with another painting.
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5. Closure/Review: Tell students that this same procedure can be used with other types of paintings and other objects
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6. Comments: *Worksheet has three columns: "What I See/What I Deduce/ Questions"
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Assessment Lessons: What Do You Know About the Christmas Campaign of 1776?
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Assessment 1:
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Students repeat the kick-off lesson, using their true/false answers from their earlier papers as a point of reference. Students share what they learned about the artists, the paintings or the events so that everyone is able to take advantage of each other's research. This is also the time where students revisit the original chart "What We Know or Think We Know about George Washington or the Crossing of the Delaware (and Following Battles)."
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Assessment 2:
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Students view the 100 minute made-for-tv movie The Crossing. The screenply for the movie was written by Howard Fast who wrote a book by the same title. Jeff Daniels, as the general, "convincingly portrays Washington as a real flesh-and-blood individual." The review in Teacher-Librarian (June 2000) also states that "students and teachers alike will delight in this entertaining and educational story of a defining moment in the life of George Washington and the history of the United States."
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I suggest that this video be used as a concluding activity because I believe that students who see this current day interpretation at the beginning of the unit will have a more difficult time looking at the primary and secondary resources objectively.
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The video easily divides into 3 approximately 30 minute segments: background and preparation for the crossing, the crossing, and the battle at Trenton. The video may be stopped when students want to add, clarify or criticize based on their learning.
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Guiding questions: How does Jeff Daniel's portrayal of George Washington compare with your knowledge of him? Does the movie add to your understanding of the people and events of the winter of 1776 and if so, how? What, is anything, would you change about the movie?
Suggested resources for each painting and its true/false statements.
Painting #1: Washington Crossing the Delaware, Dec.26, 1776 by Emanuel Leutze,1851.
Background Information on the Painting
One of the best known images of Washington, this painting was done in the artist's studio in Germany and is representative of the Romantic style of the times. In 1849 Leutze began the painting and enlisted a young artist from Ohio, Worthington Whittredge, to pose for the painting because Leutze wanted true American body types. Whittredge was painted as the steerman and as Washington; other Americans were also recruited (Scheer, 18). The first version of this picture was damaged by a studio fire in 1850 and Leutze immediately painted a second version which was sent to America in 1851 and exhibited in New York and Washington. When the New York exhibition closed on February 28, 1852, more than 50,000 people had paid to see the huge twelve by twenty foot painting. A print published in 1853 gave the image national distribution and this painting has become a popular image of both Washington and the War.
It shows Washington leading the army back across the river in the early hours of the Day after Christmas 1776. Washington stands steadfastly with his eyes focused on his destination on the far riverbank. His crew and others struggle to move the boats through the ice filled water. There are historical inaccuracies: Washington did not stand, the flag is incorrect, the event did not happen towards the dawn, the barge used was 40-60' long. However the artist has captured the drama of the moment.
Background Information on the Artist
Emanuel Leutze, born in Germany in 1816, came to the U.S. at the age of nine. He grew up in Philadelphia and became a successful artist. He returned to Dusseldorf, Germany in 1841 to join an active artist colony. He was visited by many American artists.
Suggested sources for student research
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• Washington Crossing the Delaware in the Art Gallery Foyer (http://americanrevolution.org/artmain.html) This reviews how Leutze came to paint the picture and notes some of the inaccuracies.
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• George Washington Crossing the Delaware: Explore & Learn. (http://metmuseum.org/explore/gw/el_gw.htm) This interactive lesson at the Metropolitan Museum (home of the painting) lets students explore perspective, light, color, form motion, and proportion in the painting.
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• The River Crossing (from Colonel's Glover's Regiment of Marblehead fisherman) (http://1-14th.com/HistTrentonCross.htm) This website is about Glover and his men as well as the later accomplishments of the regiment.
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See Resources for Classroom and Student Use for additional suggestions.
Painting #2: General George Washington at the Battle of Trenton by John Trumbull, 1792.
Background Information on the artist
John Trumbull was born in 1756 and grew up in Lebanon, Connecticut. He lost the sight in his left eye after falling down a flight of stairs when he was around five years old. Trumbull wanted to become an artist, but his father, the governor of Connecticut insisted that he attend Harvard University. After graduating from Harvard, he became an aide-de-camp to Washington where his artistic skills were of great value for map drawing. He subsequently resigned from the military and went to Boston and then London for training. He was imprisoned for eight months after being accused of treason. He returned to New York in 1782 but after the end of the war went back to London where he studied in Benjamin West's studio. He decided to " take up the History of our Country, and paint the principal Events of the late War"(Cooper, 7).
While abroad he painted
The Death of General Warren at the Battle of Bunker's Hill, June 17, 1775
(1786) and
The Death of General Montgomery in the Attack of Quebec, December 31, 1775
(1786). The paintings studied in this unit,
General George Washington at the Battle of Trenton
(1792),
The Capture of the Hessians at Trenton, December 26, 1776
(1786) and
The Death of General Mercer at the Battle of Princeton, January 2, 1777
(1789) were painted during the last years of the century. In 1817 he was commissioned by Congress to "compose and execute four paintings commemorative of the most important events of the American Revolution" (Cooper, 15). These well-known paintings include
The Declaration of Independence, July 4, 1776
. His historical paintings have been extensively reproduced but Trumbull struggled all his life with financial difficulties. In 1831 he gave all the works in his studio to Yale University in exchange for an annuity. John Trumbull died in 1843 and is buried in the Trumbull Gallery of the Yale University Art Gallery beneath his portrait of General George Washington.
Background information on the painting
General George Washington at the Battle of Trenton
was commissioned by the city of Charleston for its city hall during Washington's visit there in 1790 as part of his trip south. However, the portrait was turned down by South Carolina Congressman William Loughton Smith because he "thought the city would be better satisfied with a more matter-of-fact likeness, such as they had recently seen him calm, tranquil, peaceful" (George and Martha Washington: Portraits). This painting has more in common with Trumbull's history paintings than with other portraits. Trumbull kept this portrait and it was later purchased by the Society of the Cincinnati in Connecticut and donated to Yale University.
Washington is shown in full military dress, accompanied by a member of the cavalry (as indicated by the helmet.) He stands amid destruction and behind him the battle rages on.
Suggested resources for student research
• Washington's letters and other documents can be found in Writings or online at
George Washington Papers Homepage
. (http://www.virginia.edu/gwpapers/main.html) For example, in a letter written on Jan.5, 1777 to John Hancock, President of the Continental Congress, Washington gives his perspective on the events of Trenton and Princeton.
• Spies and spying: John Honeyman was an Irish weaver who offered to spy for the Americans and used several covers (butcher, Tory, British agent) to collect intelligence on British military activities in New Jersey. He participated in a deception operation that left the Hessians in Trenton unprepared for Washington's attack across the Delaware River on December 26, 1776. See also pages 240-242 in Ketchum's
The Winter Soldiers
.
Painting #3: The Capture of the Hessians at Trenton, December 26, 1776 by John Trumbull, 1786.
Background Information on the Painting
This history painting was created to commemorate the defeat of the Hessians after a surprise attack on Christmas night. Trumbull traveled along the east coast painting miniatures of the men who would appear in this painting; Washington himself sat several times and this image was used for this painting but also for
The Death of General Mercer
and
The Surrender of Lord Cornwallis
.
We see General Washington along with his aide directing the care of the mortally wounded Hessian, Colonel Johann Rall. Such a meeting is not historically accurate although many of the men represented in the painting are American officers. Likenesses for these portraits were painted on trips along the eastern seaboard and also from other portraits or from memory
Suggested sources for student research
• The Declaration of Independence: "He is, at this Time, transporting large Armies of foreign Mercenaries to complete the Works of Death, Desolation, and Tyranny, already begun with circumstances of Cruelty and Perfidy, scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous Ages, and totally unworthy the Head of a civilized Nation."
• Comments on the importance of Trenton by Major General Nathanael Greene: "The importance of Trenton to the Americans is not to be reckoned by the mere numerical test of killed, wounded, and prisoners. It was a new proof to the unskilled and destitute colonists that they were good for something as soldiers, and that their cause was not hopeless. Coming after a long course of retreat and disaster, it inspired them with fresh courage. Bunker Hill had taught the Americans that British regulars could be resisted. Trenton proved to them in an hour of despondency that the dreaded Hessians could be conquered." (http://members.aol.com/JonMaltbie/NatGreene.html).
• Lowell, Edward J.
The Hessians and the Other German Auxiliaries of Great Britain in the Revolutionary War
. New York: Harper and Brothers Publishers, 1884. (http://americanrevolution.org/hessindex.html). The entire book is available online and provides another point of view about the Hessians, using sources from Germany. Note publication date.
• David Ramsay's biography of Washington: Published eight years after George Washington's death, David Ramsay's
Life of Washington
is the first biography of Washington. It achieved great popularity. David Ramsay was a contemporary of Washington and a historian. He was twice elected a delegate to the Continental Congress, and served as its chairman in a specially-appointed post and was hugely popular.. It is extraordinary to be able to access this document online.
An excerpt from Chapter 3: "On receiving information of their numbers and different cantonments, Washington observed "Now is the time to clip their wings, when they are so spread." Yielding to his native spirit of enterprise which had hitherto been repressed, he formed the bold design of re-crossing the Delaware, and attacking the British posts on its eastern banks." (http://earlyamerica.com/lives/gwlife/chapt3/index.html)
Painting #4: The Death of General Mercer at the Battle of Princeton, January 2, 1777, ca.1789
Background Information on the Painting
This is the third of Trumbull's Revolutionary War series to commemorate the loss of a general. The composition represents several incidents of the opening round of the battle of Princeton simultaneously (Cooper, 63). Mercer and his troops who are armed only with slow-loading muskets are attacked by the British with bayonets. In chronological order the battle happened is this way. British Captain William Leslie (shown on the right) is mortally wounded in the first fire. Then General Mercer (front) is bayoneted but survives nine days, and the intensity of the action continues (left.) Finally Washington arrives to rally the troops. Doctor Benjamin Rush, accompanying Washington, later tried and failed to save the lives of Mercer and Leslie. For more information on this and other Trumbull paintings see Helen Cooper's Cooper,
John Trumbull: The Hand and Spirit of a Painter
.
Suggested resources for student research
• The virtual museum at Valley Forge National Historical Park has lots of information about Continental soldiers and officers, riflemen, horsemen and artillery. (http://www.cr.nps.gov/csd/exhibits/revwar/vafo)
• In Princeton, New Jersey, was the Mercer oak. Legend has it that after being stabbed but not wanting to leave the scene, the badly injured Mercer was given a place to rest against the tree. Read more about this symbol of the Revolution at (http://www.princetontwp.org/newsv141pg1.html)
Painting #5: George Washington at Princeton by Charles Willson Peale, 1779
Background Information on the Artist
Charles Willson Peale was born in Maryland in 1741 and decided that he could do the work of an itinerant artist. After training in Philadelphia, New England, and London, Peale returned to Maryland in 1769. In 1772 Peale's first portrait of Washington,
George Washington in the Uniform of a Colonel in the Virginia Militia
, was commissioned by Martha Washington and painted and displayed at Mount Vernon. This was Peale's only portrait of Washington done before the revolution. His portraits of Washington are considered the best likenesses of him (Gardner, 59) and Peale (and his relatives) painted many paintings of Washington. One of the most versatile men of his day Peale was an inventor, scientist, and founder of a picture gallery/natural history museum. He also saw active duty at Trenton and Princeton.
Background Information on the Painting
Peale was commissioned by the Supreme Executive Council of Pennsylvania in January 1779 to paint an official portrait of Washington, Washington sat for this painting as he did many times for Peale and his relatives. Peale traveled to the Princeton and Trenton battlefields in order to make sketches. Many replicas were made, and with different backgrounds. Peale himself wrote:" I have on hand a number of portraits of Gen. George Washington. One the ambassador had for the Court of France, another is one for the Spanish Court, one other has been sent to the island of Cuba, and sundry others which I have on hand are for private gentlemen" (Gardner, 63). Some have a blue ribbon across the chest (signifying rank as commander-in-chief.) In this replica at Yale University Art Gallery (not on display at this time) the ribbon has been painted over but leaves traces. Please note that some of the replicas do not include the two figures on horseback. It is regarded as a symbolic representation of ultimate victory.
George Washington at Princeton
was instantly popular and Peale received orders for over two dozen replicas.
Suggested resources for student research
• "Images of George Washington". Choate-Rosemary Hall. (http://crh.choate.edu/english/salot)
This student-produced site contains many well-known images of Washington.
• Two online exhibitions showcase a variety of images of Washington:
George and Martha: The Presidential Years
National Portrait Gallery http://www.npg.si.edu/exh/gw/index.htm and
"His True & Impressive Image; Portraits of George Washington"
American Art, Mead Art Museum. (http://www.amherst.edu/~mead/collections/american/)
• Two books with many portraits of Washington are Barbara Mitnick's
George Washington, American Symbol
and William Rasmussen's
George Washington: The Man Behind the Myth
.
Activity: Photocopy and/or print-out a variety of images of Washington. Display these. Vote for your favorite!
• "Washington Lost Princeton."(http://www.ballindalloch-press.com /55th/ Princeton.html). Majesty's 55th Regiment of Foot, the author claims that Washington didn't achieve most of his objectives and that the battle of Princeton was, at best, a draw.
There is as photograph of the cannonball scar made by the American artillery as they attacked the British in Naussau Hall (Princeton University) (http://www.princeton.edu/~okkey/cannonscar.html)