M. Burgess & J. Cummins
This curriculum unit focuses attention on the cultivation of (particular) attitudes, skills, and the creation of a classroom environment that is conducive to learning to learn. The major contention of the unit is that there is a certain environment which is conducive to the development or refinement of certain attitudes and skills. We do not argue the fact that there is an enormous amount of information and skills that can be gained from an equally vast number of environments. We feel, however, that the key question is “what particular information, attitudes and skills, it is desirous that one attain. And will they be perpetual in nature. For if students do not take key attitudes and skills with them, can we say that they have learned. Performance at some later date in effect becomes the bottom line.
Robert J. Sternberg, Associate Professor of Psychology at Yale University, in his article,
Criteria
for Intellectual Training
indicates that the most successful training programs for intellectual skills development seem to have incorporated skills that relate to executive and non executive information processing. If students master the skills associated with executive and non executive processing of information then learning becomes a self perpetuating entity. The transmission of such skills to students according to Sternberg must take into consideration the students cultural base, individual needs, and individual differences. It is also his contention that there must be a link between training and real world behavior. Sternberg makes it quite clear that motivational stimulation is a must. Since the training has to take place somewhere (site) logic dictates that it be considered as a motivation force, either positively or negatively.
Sternberg in his article,
How Can We Teach
Intelligence
, endorses (Fuerstein’s) the Instrumental Enrichment Program and (Lipman’s) the Philosophy of Children as vehicles for intellectual skill development. His endorsements, however, are not given without reservations. The Instrumental Enrichment Program is Characterized by the absence of a discipline base, the need for extensive teacher training, and its concentration on abilities required by I.Q. tests. The Philosophy For Children is program is characterized by the difficulty of the reading materials,the value orientation of the characters portrayed, and its dependence on a gifted teacher to effect the program. We interpret these reservations to mean that successful use of either program is in large dependent upon the skill level of the participants prior to their involvement in the program(s). It is possible that selected student might derive benefit from these programs, however, we believe that extensive usage in an urban educational situation is a questionable proposition. The requirements which dictate success would tax the resources of most urban school districts. We, also believe such programs would test the patience level of many urban students, and quite possibly place their concept of self worth in jeopardy.
Attitudes are reflective of the experiences that we have had. The experiences that we have are in large measure a result of the skills we employ to decipher and to implement in relation to particular environments. If particular attitudes are desired then one has to consider programming one or more of the key particular environments of an individual to cultivate that which is desired. A particular environment designed with the promotion of intellectual skill development as a key objective must speak to the interest of the individuals concerned. It must be designed to arouse curiosity and provide opportunities for experimentation. It must reflect the skills stated in the objectives as they move through the phases of an information processing system (i.e. scientific method). Active involvement, and staying power on the part of the student are best realized when the aforementioned are covariants within the environment designated for intellectual skill development. Our experience as classroom teacher lead us to conclude that environments which do not effect this co-variation will influence student to detach (passive disruptive), do just enough to get by (survive) or to fight back (active disruptive). Environments which do not affect the aforementioned co-variation are in a very real sense predicated upon survival of the fittest. Whether the environment is confining or loosely structured does not alter this basic condition of survival of the fittest. Success in such an environment is dependent upon ones ability to self-actuate, or the possession of certain skills prior to involvement in the program. If success is possible without regard for these conditions then we could conclude that one need not be very fit in order to survive. We perceive the key difference in the programs for intellectual skill development proposed by the Instrumental Enrichment Program and the Philosophy For Children and that which we advocate is the degree of nurturing that is effected. Nurturing in the sense that provisions are made for the cultivation of a particular attitude, and the component skills* that under score intellectual skill development.
Adolescent Readiness/Classroom Environment
Who is it that we want to learn? Who is the school-age child in general, the middle and high school in particular? It is the adolescent. Who are these adolescents? What do they want? What are they ready for?
Basically we are talking about a person between the age of 13 and 17. We are talking about a person who is undergoing extensive physical, cognitive, emotional, and role changes. Such persons have presented an enormous problem to educators in recent years. One wonders if we, educators, really consider this stage in the life-cycle called adolescence. Yes, we are aware of teen pregnancies and have put into operation programs to deal with this issue. Yes, we are aware of drug abuse, teen violence, the need for remediation, poor test scores, physical fitness, mental health and the list goes on and on. This list, however reflects the reality consequence of the age-group, and not to the question of adolescence. Much of what we do as educators is predicated on the capability of the adolescent. What test scores say that he or she should be able to do. Perhaps the greater question just might be what is the adolescent ready to do? If we say that the adolescent is ready to challenge and be challenged, do we consider and provide for that reality? If we say that the young person is changing from one who is no longer thinks primarily in terms of “What is” but thinks in terms of “What is possible” do we provide for and/or encourage such thinking? If we say that the adolescent should be ready for a higher level of responsibility and trust, do we provide the related opportunities? If we say that they must learn to decipher, adjust and survive the reality that is the world in which we live. Can we decipher, adjust, and survive the reality that is the adolescent? Do we
*We define component skill to mean those skills which relate to: (a) Transformation of information from one to another, (b) recognition of key words, symbols, and formulas, (c) presentation skills (written and oral). consider that they are sophisticated enough to perceive the duplicity if we say yes we do, when in actual practice we do not? If the question of adolescent readiness is not given more than just a passive acknowledgement as a particular stage in the life-cycle then it is our belief that no matter how noble our intention, or the industry of our effort the best designed efforts will fail. We believe that many students do not find school a challenging, exciting, or informative place to be. If one did not include the opportunity for social interaction we believe a large number of students would simply categorize the situation as non-productive. This is not a recent development in regard to what is often portrayed as the adolescents’ view of school. If you ask a small child if he or she likes school and he or she says that they hate it. It is not unusual for some people who pass off such a response as being cute, or typical and say something to the effect that this is just a stage and it will pass. What is the consequence if the stage does not pass. A popular TV program of the 1950’s and 60’s
Leave it to Beaver
had as a major theme that was repeated over and over again: School was an intimidating, and at the same time boring place to be. Although one might find a nice teacher on occasion, teachers in general were people only a parent could love. School attendance was synonymous with punishment. A more recent program featured a group called the sweat-hogs and although its intentions was comedy, the underlying theme was not only that school was a joke, but it also was rather dangerous. The roles given to key figures of authority were very similar to those rules given to blacks in the early days of film, buffoons.
Room 222
and
The White Shadow
were more realistic, yet neither program projected school in the light of being a challenging and exciting place to be. A place that requires hard work and provided a sense of fulfillment from a job well done. The most recent program
Fame
does underscore hard work for art’s sake. However, it is enjoyable, creative, and participation is based on student choice and administrative selection. It also reflects only a minute segment of the adolescent population. Many people if asked might say well these programs were meant to be entertaining, and if that is truly the case, then who am I to say that they did not entertain. They were all very popular and enjoyed reasonable runs so far as the life of a TV program is concerned. Re-runs of
Leave it to Beaver
are still immensely popular. It is our contention that those programs were reflective of more than just an effort to entertain. Just as today’s current popularity of adult programming is reflective of more than just an effort to entertain. We have it because there are adults who identify with it, want it, and are willing to pay for it especially since they can have it within the privacy of their own home (cable, VHS). On the one hand we question such adults in regard to moral standards and with the other hand applaud them for accepting the reality that constitutes their lives by exercising their rights as citizens. It seems only right that we accord the same prerogative to adolescents. They have been saying for years that school could be, should be, so much more than it is actually. Oddly enough we, educators, supply much of the evidence that supports this contention. We say that students (especially in urban schools) consistently realize less than 50% of their potential. Students simply do not commit themselves to the effort. Why? Could it be that what we present, in the manner that it is presented and that the reasons given for presentation does not correlate with what adolescents are ready for? This should not be confused with what is felt that they should are capable of at a particular stage in the life cycle. In observing small children at play, dress-up (adult behavior) is unquestionably a favorite. Their seriousness and attention to detail is to be commended. It seems that as students proceed through the ranks of our educational system they are denied this one time favorite. At a time when the urge to emulate adult behavior is just as strong, and they are in a far better position to activate the game they are in many ways forced to repress this urge. This repression is reflected in student attitude and behavior in regard to school.
Attitude can be defined as one’s perception or feelings in regard to a particular entity. How one perceives a situation to a large extent determines how one will behave. If one is serious about changing behavior and obtaining a maximum effort from students then one has to consider the question of attitude. If the student’s attitude is one or a combination of:
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a. Adults say one thing, but do something else
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b. School is a bore (school work not relevant)
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c. That there are all powerful structures that oppress (school, government, police, etc.)
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d. That certain groups are the object of scorn, and there is little that can be done about it.
When such attitudes are not addressed then the amount of actual learning that takes place is debatable. Debatable because under such conditions many students tend to rebel, withdraw, and/or endure. Information which is not directly related to these concerns for the most part is considered irrelevant. If the situation is intense and of long duration students are for the most part rendered useless to the system created for their supposed enhancement.
The work of Kahneman and Tversky suggest that presentation of a problem is vital. That how something is presented can affect one’s perception of its validity. What good is it for a teacher to spend untold hours developing materials for classroom use if it does not penetrate the student consciousness in a way that cultivates a reaction that can be built upon. Many teachers complain of time spent developing lessons that just do not seem to go over well with students. Some adopt the attitude that students are lazy, uncaring, incapable, and the list goes on and on. And perhaps they may have a point in regard to some students. However, we do not believe this to be the case for the vast majority of students. Curiosity, the desire to understand the process within, and those that surrounds is a characteristic of the Adolescent age group. One does not have to reach the age of maturity to perceive insincere and evasive tactics. We tend to believe that materials although presented well will raise concerns if they do meet student needs.
How does one do it for one’s self?
Regardless of subject matter if this question is avoided in large measure so is adolescence. Adolescents are ready to challenge. Suicide, drug abuse, teen pregnancies, apathy, delusions of grandeur, teen violence, and extreme fad identification, are realities of the Adolescent age group of today. They are ready to challenge, and they do—challenge. If this is the price that we must pay for socialization, especially in regard to school, for this particular age group then we say that the price is quite high. Socialization is a valid concern, however, valid does not make it any easier for adolescents to endure. Especially if they cannot really understand the reason why.
In dealing with the reason why, we feel that skills related to the executive, and non-executive process are an excellent vehicle, regardless of subject matter.
“There is an all powerful structure that oppresses”
How does one attack such an attitude? The real question here is power. Those who desire to possess it, students, do not have it. How can one share power with them, and still maintain a measure of control in the classroom?
Examples:
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a. prep a student(s) to teach a mini-lesson
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b. create opportunities for students to be the center of attention.
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c. give students opportunities to make decisions that are implemented (small group projects)
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d. allow or create opportunities for students to be out of their seats and/or talk to other students without having to ask permission
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e. prep students for a simple exercise in which they have to deal with an actual figure of authority
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f. role-play figures of authority (dress-up)
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g. when possible use cassette/or video equipment to allow student to hear and see themselves
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h. involve students in the decoration of the walls—and or class stations (library, etc.)
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i. class rules should be posted*
A simple definition of power means that one has some say in that which will be. Once students have been drawn into a circle of power, classroom involvement, other concerns can be addressed. The usage of power is a skill and should be given due consideration within the curriculum .
Activities which grant the student a measure of power and involve him or her in the lesson constitutes important preparatory training for the teaching of executive and non-executive skills. Such activities help to develop feeling of trust and mutual respect between teacher and student, and between the various students in the class. It is advantageous for an atmosphere to be developed whereby students begin to actually feel for each other. To look out for each other and to encourage each other. To begin to compare experiences. “Yeah, I was nervous but once I began to talk—I was OK.”
*Class should be involved in the development of classroom rules. Teacher should make it clear that no rule can take precedence over school board policy or rules listed in the student handbook.
Team Work-Group Dynamics
Certain concerns are important in regards to preparing students to work as members of a team. Team work related projects are an excellent vehicle for the integration of executive and non-executive skill development into the curriculum. Team work related projects also give students additional opportunities to emulate adult behavior. For many students this will be a completely new approach to learning and therefore it is of utmost importance that the teacher exercise a degree of patience. Topics used to introduce the team work skills to the class should be on something that students can easily identify with (ex. 1. What is the cost of graffiti removal? 2. Is there a dress code associated with positions of power?). Students should be slowly introduced to a system for the processing of information.
Example:
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a. identification of the problem
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b. identification of potential sources of information
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c. what mechanism and/or strategies will be used to collect data
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d. what method will be used to interpret, and to present collected data
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e. who will be assigned to a particular task
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f. what time frame will be placed on individual sections and on the overall project
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g. potential usages of the completed project
It is most important that the teacher understand the ability level of the student involved and not to be
overly
concerned with certain aspects in the beginning (quality of written report in regard to spelling, etc.). Such concerns can be addressed in time. The important concern is to involve students in the process and to help them see it through The more involved students are the more likely they will want it to be just right. They will re-write a report that has grammatical errors. They will redo an oral taped presentation. They will ask question or get a dictionary to help them better understand written material relevant to an aspect of the project.
It is important that students be cautioned that the plans often require adjustment in the midst of implementation. The reasons for such adjustments are numerous however a few examples to the class will be sufficient. (ex. a group member will get sick, a group member will fail to perform an assigned task—which may lead to removal from the group). The teacher has to be prepared to pull group members who fail to exert the desired effort and organize them into an alternate group. It will be very important that remaining group members close ranks and keep moving forward. The message to all has to be that one or two or a number of people will not stop a project. Those who want the information, client who is paying, want just that, and not excuses. It has to be impressed upon students that communication within the group is very important. If a deadline cannot be met then adjustments have to be made. If a change in methods (ex. collection of data) is necessary, then it
must
be effected. If roles within the group have to be changed, than group members must deal with this issue. These are extremely important skills for student to master. It will not happen if they are not given the opportunity. During the course of this project daily lessons should be designed to reinforce and explain the steps in the system for the processing of information.
Every situation, contingency, and problem has to be viewed as an opportunity to teach. Is there a certain dress appropriate for one who is conducting an interview? What ground rules should be set before the interviews takes place? Can I use a tape recorder? What is the agreed upon usage of the material obtained? What does the person want for granting the interview? How should he or she be thanked?
If attention is paid to the concept of adolescence readiness educators can realistically plan in regard to the formation of particular attitudes and refinement of certain skills in the most stable environment of the student-teacher relationship, the classroom.
Classroom Environment
Classrooms should:.
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a. State that (society) is based upon certain rules (laws)
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b. Provide an opportunity for student to examine, explore and to question.
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c. Provide an opportunity for students to obtain skills which help to alleviate fear (presentation skills, logical thinking, problem solving, improved feeling of self worth, etc.)
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d. Should transmit messages that promote hard work, good citizenship, the life-cycle key social, economic, and political questions.
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e. That life is for the living and in as much as circumstances permit should be enjoyed.
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f. Allow for controlled, semi-controlled and uncontrolled interaction between students/students and teacher.
In the course of the student teacher relationship the classroom becomes the most stable condition of the relationship. At one time for many the kitchen of one’s home served the same function for families. Good day or bad, rain or shine this is where we meet. The potential for impact inherent in such rooms is enormous. The more vital the room the more likely that vitality will be transmitted to those who are within. Directed vitality provides the foundation for accomplishment. Bare classrooms pre-suppose that vitality is being provided elsewhere. What happens when it is not being provided elsewhere? Disruptive behavior, apathy, disinterest—a search for the easy way out? There are a number of programs
in
various stages of implementation in school districts throughout the nation. The verdict is still out in regard to how effective many of these programs can or will be. In the meantime we believe the classroom, its physical presence, offers an excellent point of attack. The physical presence of an entity can have an effect on one’s emotional well being. Drab, or barren, or haphazardly constructed (decorated) classrooms do not motivate. We think this is especially true for middle and high school students who were initially educated in elementary classrooms that contained so very much to excite, to arouse ones curiosity, to entertain, to liven the spirit, to remind, to teach . . . so much to challenge students to learn how to learn. Many of our interest and concerns are rooted in our particular age-group. What is of interest and valid to an adult of 28 to 40 may have little significance to a student of 13 to 17.
An exchange of places reflection of students interest for that of the adults will not necessarily effect a solution. It will not reflect balance respect for the rights of others. The room should reflect a process and not solitary segments.
We recommend the following as standard classroom equipment:
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A.
Time
Line
: A band of information that covers one to three walls of a room:.
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____
First
Wall
: could be a simple time line of events, that compares items, conditions, or people of the past with those of the present.
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____
Second
Wall
: It could project educational materials felt relevant for different periods of time.
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____
Third
Wall
: It could chronicle a single entity such as means of transportation from man (walking) to spaceships.
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B.
Cassette
Station
: A cassette player is bolted to a station. Tapes which are made by the students, teacher and other sources would be available for listening or production. A schedule of random or assigned usage could be effected.
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C.
Message/Graffiti
Board
: Large square pad or bulletin board on which students are allowed to write messages, rules should be posted for usage. A short selection on Graffiti in History will help set the tone for this usage of space.
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D. Posters: To transmit messages—to entertain—to use as an aid in presentation. An outlet for creative students-opportunity to encourage something new for the not so creative.
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E.
Library
Corner
: Relevant materials that reflect the subject area from a variety of positions—from the very serious to the very humorous.
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F.
Problem Solving Corner
: A box of brain teasers that cause for students to use a wide range of skills to solve.
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G.
Speaker’s Stand
: Regardless of the subject a stand for oral presentations is most important. Presentations should not be forced on student, rather they should be encouraged to try and give a presentation. As the year progresses presentations should be worked in as a class requirement.
Another consideration in regard to classroom environment centers around seating arrangements. Certain lessons are enhanced by the simple re-arrangement of the desk. (ex. discussion-circle, Teamwork groups of 2, 3, 4’s).
The Teacher’s desk when possible should also be moved (once a marking period is not unreasonable). People are often fearful of change, however, change can also awaken interest.
There is nothing wrong with students wondering where they might be sitting on a given day. It can also awaken an interest in probability within the student. It may start students to begin considering and suggesting possible arrangements that could be utilized, which provides an excellent opportunity to implement a student’s decision.
Integration MATHEMATICS/SKILL DEVELOPMENT
It is readily apparent to one who teaches in a school system such as ours (urban) that the teaching of various subject areas in a relative vacuum does not hold any values. Our students must not be taught facts such as those in a history or mathematics course in “recipe or cookbook” form because this will do little to serve them in the “real” economic world that they will eventually be part of. We must, challenge students “to learn how to learn.” This is what the employees of the world are really seeking. Having been involved in the Private Industry Council “Summer Jobs for Youth,” we received first-hand knowledge of what New Haven area employers are looking for from our students.
We firmly believe that through mathematics, one can teach our students to think logically. and to be able to take a problem, look at the given data, and solve the problem.
One of the first tasks would be emphasizing that, as in all other areas of life, mathematics has its own unique language, vocabulary, that must be understood in order to go any further. After this area is covered we need to show the students how to use the mathematical and computational skills that they have mastered to solve every-day life problems and then to learn and/or better understand the material being presented in other disciplines such as history or science. We must, somehow, get our students to “think”, to see the “big picture”; for if this is accomplished, they will them see the value of high school education.
In our unit we will teach the students to gather data where applicable, process the data, interpret the data, and to implement findings from the given data.
We will teach students how to take data in graph form; bar, circle, histograms, and interpret and truly understand the meaning of the information directed at them. We will also teach the students how to construct their own graphs from various data (collected) or presented to them. Also, we will teach the students how to find various measures of central tendencies such as arithmetic mean, the mode, the median and the mid-range and then once they are comfortable in finding these measures for central tendencies will get them to be able to choose among the aforementioned and use the correct and appropriate measure. And to use this information as a part of a project or presentation.
Another area we will cover will be a mini unit on deductive thinking which can be taught through the medium of mathematics.
Through the use of conditional (if-then statements) we hope to emphasize to our students that they can and must develop the ability to see a casual relationship for example in events that might be taught in a
history
class
. If this—if then concepts can be put across our students will be on the way to developing the ability to be able to learn how to learn.
Example:
Given that the constitutional requirements for:
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President are: a. at least 35 years of age
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____
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b. natural born citizen
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____
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c. 14 years a resident (prior to election
Given that it is equally true that certain unwritten requirements are attached to the office of President.
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Such as: a. membership in the Democratic or Republican Party
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____
____
b. Male/White
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____
____
c. enormous amount of financial support
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If x = constitutional requirements
y = potential candidate (one who has realistic chance of winning
z = unwritten requirements for Presidents
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then
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y = x
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y = z
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y = x + z
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