The oldest record of drug use comes from the cuneiform writing of the Sumarian people of Asia Minor in about 5000 B.C. Their records tell of a “joy plant”, opium.
About 3000 B.C. Chinese records tell of the substance ephedrine which was used as an inhalant and a plant cannabis sativa, marijuana, which was brewed into a tea and used for medicinal purposes. About 2000 B.C. Indian records show cannabis had been introduced into India where the people dried and smoked it. Thus, as early as 2000 B.C. drugs were being inhaled, brewed into teas and smoked.
We do not have a record of the earliest uses of alcohol, but it is assumed to have originated by accidental fermentation during primitive times. The earliest recorded reference to alcohol was found in the Code of Hammurabi which was inscribed in Babylon about 1700 B.C. The Code warned against drunkenness.
About 1500 B.C. Egyptian papyri expressed fear of opium elixirs because of the hallucinogenic delusions they produced. The Egyptians used opium elixirs as a kind of anesthetic when performing primitive skull surgery.
The discovery of drug properties varied in different parts of the world according to the local vegetation. By 1000 B.C. the Incas, in what is now Bolivia and Peru, were chewing coca leaves because they had a stimulating effect, increased energy, suppressed appetite and produced euphoria. This drug was also part of their religious ceremonies and was considered more valuable than silver or gold. The active ingredient in coca leaves is cocaine.
About 100 B.C. the Aztec Indians of Mexico had a culture built around the magic properties of the peyote cactus, the psilocybin (sacred) mushroom and the seeds of a certain type of morning glory all of which have hallucinogenic properties. In North America it was common for the Indians to inhale the smoke from burning tobacco leaves.
The ancient Greeks extensively used alcohol and other drugs, and classical literature has many references to them. In Homer’s the Iliad and the Odyssey, which dates from about 800 B.C., it is suggested that some of the heros overindulged in wine. This included Achilles, the hero of the Trojan War. When Helen went to Troy, she is said to have brought a drug-like substance, nepenthe. Some people believe nepenthe to be marijuana and others opium.
About 400 B.C. the Greek historian Herodotus wrote about the Scythians, nomads who lived in part of what is now Russia. He told how they cultivated a hemp plant which they burned like incense in closed rooms. The Scythians inhaled the fumes of the burning hemp and became as intoxicated as Greeks who were drunk on wine. About the same time, Hippocrates, sometimes called the father of medicine, was experimenting with medical preparations using opium.
By 100 A.D. the Romans were enjoying wine so much that they had to develop anti-drunkenness laws. Because the Romans were conquerors of other lands, they came into contact with other drug cultures. In the first century A.D. Dioscorides, a Greek surgeon who traveled with the Roman army, described how to make liquid opium by crushing the pod of the poppy plant. During the second century A.D., Galen, court physician to Marcus Aurelius, was a proponent of the benefits of opium eating and other vegetable therapies. Because of his authority, such preparations were known for centuries as Galenicals.
During the first millennium A.D., the cultivation of cannabis spread and well-defined pattern s of use developed. In India in the first century A.D., the
Susruta
describes specific grades of cannabis. Bhang, the least potent, was brewed into tea by the lowest classes. Ganja, a stronger grade, was usually smoked by the middle classes. Charas, the most potent grade, comparable to hashish, was mixed with nuts and honey and eaten by the most affluent classes.
The word hashish dates back to 11
th
century A.D. in Persia where drugs first became associated with criminal activities. A group of Muslims called “Hashish”, hempeaters, allegedly would use hashish in preparation to launch violent attacks against rivals.
Throughout the 11th and 12th centuries A.D. “drug-poor” Europe learned about drug cultivation and preparation, including knowledge of hashish and distilled alcohol, from “drug-rich” Asia. When Marco Polo return ed from expeditions to the Orient, he brought not only the spices and silks that history books usually tell about, but also detailed knowledge on opium cultivation and drug cults.
In reporting the history of caffeine, Robert O’Brien and Sidney Cohen wrote the following.
It was through the travels of early explorers that the familiar stimulant, caffeine, came into widespread use. The coffee tree is an evergreen native to Ethiopia. It was cultivated in early times in Arabia and its berries were mixed with liquid to make a stimulating drink. European explorers in the Middle East recorded seeing Mohammedans drinking coffee for energy during long religious pilgrimages and vigils in the 14th century.
8
Coffee was introduced into Europe during the l6th and l7th centuries. In 1625 the first London coffeehouse was established. Coffeehouses were favorite places for writers and other creative people, and they became the rage in late 17th and 18th century London. Because of England’s global sea trade, coffee cultivation and use spread throughout the world, most notedly to South America which now produces most of the world’s supply.
The European explorers found new drugs when they traveled East and new drugs when they traveled West.
The meeting of the Old World with the New stands as the most crucial drug exchange in recorded history. The explorations begun by Columbus discovered, among other resources, cocaine from South America, hallucinogens from Central America and tobacco from North America. These drugs were brought back to European courts and received with as much relish as parrots, gold and furs. The drug exchange became complete when the Europeans introduced into the Americans distilled alcoholic beverages and, in Chile in 1545, cannabis from Asia.
The tobacco revolution was especially remarkable. Indians introduced European sailors to smoking and with its alternating stimulating and tranquilizing effects, it became immediately popular. Ships traveled throughout the world with tobacco leaves and seeds. Magellan brought it with him to Africa, the Dutch to the Hottentots and the Portuguese to Polynesia. In 1560 Jacques Nicot introduced tobacco smoking to France and claimed it had great medicinal potential. The active ingredient nicotine is named after him. Sir Walter Raleigh brought pipe smoking to England. By 1614 in England, even the poor were smoking.
The addictive nature of nicotine became quickly apparent. In 1623 Sir Frances Bacon described smoking as
A certain secret pleasure. Those who have once become accustomed thereto can later hardly be restrained therefrom.
10
In 1603 Japan acted to prohibit smoking, in 1604 James I of England wrote against smoking and in 1642 and 1650 Papal encyclicals against smoking were published. All these efforts failed. Most countries soon replaced prohibitions on smoking with high and very profitable taxes. In every culture into which it was introduced, tobacco became common. The last culture being the tribes of the Arctic region during this century.
No social practice matches the virtually universal appeal of smoking, a fact which can only be accounted for by the addictive quality of nicotine and the conditioning established after thousands of nicotine “hits” to the brain.
11
The struggle to control smoking continues today. One interesting recent event has been action taken by the army. As the New York Times reported it, smoking and soldiering have gone together for a long time. It seemed to offer an interval of relief from fear or boredom.
But today the service turned about face and deserted that tradition. Citing the health of smokers and nonsmokers alike, the Army adopted a new policy meant to make the habit an exception rather than a rule among the troops. Around the world today, smoking was prohibited in Army facilities, vehicles and aircraft, with the exceptions of specially established smoking areas.
The Army’s new policy is part of a campaign against tobacco throughout the military. The Navy and Air Force are expected to announce their own new rules shortly.
Going back to the 1600s while the use of tobacco was becoming widespread, the use of opium was also increasing. By 1650 it was recognized that the use of opium caused serious health problems, but by then there was organized commerce in it. In 1776 the English East Indian Company began shipping opium from its colony India to China. Chinese rulers made it a capital offence to smoke opium, but this first effort to control opium use failed.
In 1839 the Chinese government again prohibited the importation of opium and seriously tried to enforce the law. The result was the Opium War between China and England from 1839 to 1842. England won. A second opium war was fought 1856 to 1858. China still had to permit importation of opium subject to high tariffs. In a pattern that would be repeated in other nations, attempts to curb drug traffic by high tariffs only succeeded in encouraging smuggling and criminal conspiracies.
England justified its position in the Opium Wars by saying it encouraged shipment of opium to its own shores—which it did. Opium was commonly used throughout England, the rest of Europe and America. The most widespread use was in childrens’ medicines.
The most popular household guide of the time,
Beeton’s
Book
of
Household
Management
, felt compelled in its 1869 edition to warn that certain “preparations, which are constantly given to children by their nurses and mothers, for the purpose of making them sleep, often prove fatal.”
13
There seemed to be no choice for the poor, especially the women who did textile work in their homes. The German Frederick Engels in
The
Condition
of
the
Working
Class
in
England
in
1844
described the effects of increasing dosages as the young bodies developed tolerance to the drug. He wrote,
They become pale, stunted and weak, generally dying before they are two years old. The use of this medicine is widespread in all the great cities and industrial towns of the country.
14
Meanwhile advances in chemistry and pharmacology were making new and more potent drugs available.
In 1803 the active ingredient in opium was isolated. It was called morphine after the Greek god of dreams and sleep, Morpheus. It became commonly used as a pain killer and hundreds of thousands of people became addicted to it. In 1853 the hypodermic needle was introduced. It was mistakenly believed that if morphine was injected it would not be addictive because it did not go through the digestive system.
American medicine relied on morphine. It is estimated that the Civil War, 1861-1865, produced about 400,000 morphine addicts in the army alone.
In 1886 a Dr. Horatio Day wrote that “Maimed and shattered survivors from a hundred battlefields, diseased and disabled soldiers released from hostile prisons, anguished and hopeless wives and mothers, made so by the slaughter of those who were dearest to them, have found, many of them, temporary relief from their sufferings in opium.” Day’s comments were published in a book called
The
Opium
Habit
which is significant for its recognition of the danger of addiction and resignation to the necessary use of the drug in desperate circumstances.
15
In Europe more morphine addicts were created during the Franco-Prussian War, 1870-1871.
Although the use of “modern “ drugs kept increasing, alcohol was the most abused drug during the 18th and 19th centuries. While fermented alcohol was used since ancient times, it was the improved methods of distilling spirits, discovered in the late 1600s, that made it become a widespread problem. During the 1700s gin became available at low cost and many impoverished people, especially women, were found in the streets drunk on gin. Gin was nicknamed “mother’s ruin”. Some pointed out that abuse of alcohol led to poverty and misery while others pointed out that poverty and misery led to abuse of alcohol.
In 1878 cocaine became readily available as a treatment of morphine addiction. It was also used as a regional anesthetic for surgery in 1886. In 1889, Styth Pemberton, a marketer from Atlanta, Georgia, who sold opiate liver pills and a mixture of coca leaves and wine which he called French wine cola, mixed coca leaves with caffeine from the kola nut and called the product coca-cola. Because of government insistence, coca-cola had to be “decocainized” in 1906. In the 1880s the use of cocaine spread throughout Europe and America through the use of soft drinks and misguided medical preparations. Sigmund Freud used cocaine. Sir Arthur Conan Doyle’s detective Sherlock Homes used cocaine to counter depression. The first Sherlock Homes’ mysteries published in 1880s were open about his habit, “Quick, Watson, the needle!” In later stories he was cured of this habit to reflect the changing public attitude on drugs.
Cocaine did not gain much popularity in the United States until the 1960s. Since then supplies have been increasing and prices dropping. With the help of these conditions, the use of cocaine has continued to grow. The number of seniors in high school having tried cocaine has almost doubled in the last ten years. It now is a drug of major national concern .
Although marijuana is illegal throughout most of the world, it is the fourth most popular mind-affecting substance used. The first three are caffeine, nicotine and alcohol. As mentioned above, its cultivation and use is documented throughout recorded history. It was brought to the new world in 1500s A.D. by the Spanish who brought it to Chile. It was a major crop in Virginia and New England during colonial times. In 1937 it became illegal in the United States. Despite its illegality, however, marijuana use continued to spread.
Heroin was introduced in 1898, and it was thought to be the cure for opium and morphine addiction. It has been used extensively in the U.S. since the early 1900s. With American involvement in Southeast Asia, our use and supply of heroin increased. In recent years, however, its use has decreased some, and it is currently estimated that we have about 500,000 heroin dependent people in the country.
Since the time of Hammurabi, almost 4000 years ago, people have been trying to find ways to control drug abuse. The first U.S. law aimed at drug control was made in San Francisco in 1875 against “opium houses” which had developed on the west coast to accommodate the Chinese workers who had come from China to work on the railroads. It proved unsatisfactory. Prohibiting the use of a drug or demanding too high a taxation repeatedly seemed only to encourage criminal control. Our nation’s first law regulating narcotics (opium, morphine, heroin) was the Harrison Narcotics Act of 1914. This law even cut off legal supply of opium to addicts and therefore forced them to seek illegal supplies. This set a precedent of punishment-without treatment. It is worth noting that the new law that House Speaker O’Neil is asking for would include help for addicts.
In 1970 the U.S. passed the Controlled Substance Act which is a law to prevent drug abuse and establish drug control. It brought up to date and consolidated all federal drug laws since the Harrison Narcotics Act. The Controlled Substance Act (CSA) established criteria for determining whether or not a drug should be controlled. Controlled drugs, such as cocaine, are not the same as regulated drugs, such as alcohol. One of the basic differences is that every ounce of a controlled substance, manufactured or imported, must be accounted for. Regulated substances are only “regulated” by federal and state laws that govern their sales and purchase. The CSA classifies controlled drugs according to five schedules.
Throughout this century countries from around the world have been meeting and are continuing to meet, to discuss the drug problem. The World Health Organization (WHO) under the United Nations is the agency that today collects the most reliable worldwide data on drug abuse.
Why is taking drugs so dangerous? The next section might be helpful in answering this question.
Why
Is
Taking
Drugs
So
Dangerous?
The passages that follow sketch an overall picture of the drug issue. It covers many important points. It was written , however, in 1977. To update it mention should be made of the increased use of marijuana and cocaine. (See the tables in Figures 11-14 in the last section.) Also, dependence is now recognized to have two forms, psychological and physical, not just physical.
The term “drug abuse” or more broadly, “substance abuse,” was coined to replace emotionally loaded language such as “dope fiend” or “drug addict.” . . . Current thinking is moving away from the overly simplistic descriptions toward an attempt to better understand the problem through consideration of its cultural context. The results are:
* less panic
* less condemning
* more communication
* greater understanding
The following classifications are being used with greater frequency . . .
(a)
Experimental
Users
-These users may try out various drugs on one or two occasions out of curiosity about their effects on themselves.
(b)
Recreational
Users
-These users participate with friends, at parties or on other social occasions to be sociable or to get into the mood of things.
(c)
Regular
Users
These individuals use drugs constantly to attain or maintain a certain desired state, but continue to attempt normal activity, work, school, home, etc.
(d)
Dependent
Users
These users find that they can no longer relate to anything other than drug seeking and drug taking. They experience extreme mental or physical symptoms when they are in need of drugs and will do whatever is necessary to obtain them.
. . . The dangers of drug use increase with the amount and frequency of use. However, there are dangers in some drugs at any phase of non-medical use. Overdose is always possible in the case of alcohol, heroin, amphetamines and barbiturates. Injecting drugs increases the possibility of overdose and infection from unsterile syringes. Risks are also increased by using drugs in combination.
The effects of drugs on behavior pose another danger. Impairment of perception, of judgement and of memory can be caused by any drug and are related to minor and major accidents. Behavior changes associated with mood alteration are highly variable from one individual to another and from one setting to another. It is not possible to state accurately that any given behavior will always result from use of a certain drug. Extreme aggressiveness and extreme passivity are most likely to result from alcohol, heroin, amphetamines or barbiturates.
The most obvious, and perhaps the most serious threat to the use of any drug is the possibility of increased use and, ultimately, dependency.
. . . Drug dependency is characterized by craving and by withdrawal symptoms. The latter are physical in nature and can include muscle cramps, vomiting, chills and the like. The drug-dependent person also develops tolerance, which means he requires larger and larger doses to achieve the same effect.
16
What follows next is a closer look at five drugs. alcohol, caffeine, cocaine, marijuana and nicotine. I chose caffeine, nicotine, alcohol and marijuana because these are the four most popular mood altering drugs in the world. I included cocaine because it has become a serious problem in our country.
It may seem trivial to include caffeine in this list, but I included it because it is one of the world’s most popular drugs and because I wanted information on a drug that was not “hard core” so that we might move toward a better understanding that substance abuse can refer to excess of any substance.
Alcohol
Effects on body
. Alcohol is a mind-altering drug that works as a sedative, changes the way a person thinks and acts, and affects judgement and coordination. Alcohol is a depressant of the central nervous system. It acts on the primitive part of the brain releasing it from the control of the cortex or higher brain functions. Even though alcohol is basically a depressant, it can have a pseudo-stimulating effect caused by hyperactive activity of the primitive parts of the brain when they are suddenly released from the inhibitory control of the higher functions. The stimulating effect is short-lived, however, and it soon gives way to the depressant effect.
Since alcohol is a primary and continuous depressant to the central nervous system, its effect is similar to a general anesthetic though less profound and longer lasting.
Its effects are long lasting because alcohol is slowly metabolized by the liver. Its the liver’s job to filter wastes, contaminants or toxins which might damage the cells throughout the body or interfere with their functioning. On the average it takes an adult about five or six hours to metabolize the alcohol in 4 ounces of whiskey or 1.25 quarts of beer or 5.5 ounces of a martini. Liver damage represents the main health hazard of alcohol,and cirrhosis of the liver is a leading cause of death. Prolonged use of alcohol is also associated with lowered resistance to disease, stomach trouble and heart disease.
Dependence
and
tolerance
. Physical dependence definitely occurs and withdrawal symptoms may include hangover, confusion, disorientation, convulsions, visual hallucinations and delirium tremens (DTs). There is about an 8% fatality rate for those who experience DTs without help. A person may develop a mild, moderate or strong psychological dependence on alcohol.
Tolerance to it develops, but imperfectly. With sustained drinking the body may need to increase the amount an alcoholic’s performance while intoxicated may be slightly less impaired than a nonalcoholic.
A persons level of intoxication can be fairly accurately measured by a “breathalyzer” test. The criteria used is based on the percentage concentration of grams of alcohol in proportion to grams of blood. In Connecticut legal presumption of intoxication is 0.10%.
Miscellaneous
. Because of its action in releasing aggressive drives from inhibitory controls, alcohol is a significant factor in over half the crimes of violence in this country and over half the automobile fatalities. And because of its ability to potentate many drugs, alcohol is often an important factor in drug fatalities, especially when large doses are not involved.
It is estimated that there are 10 million alcoholics and between 8 million and 20 million other people with moderate to serious alcohol problems.
Alcohol is considered a “regulated” substance. States regulate it by controlling outlets, age restrictions, pricing and taxation, and various laws such as on public drunkenness and driving while intoxicated.
Caffeine
Effects
on
body. Caffeine is the most popular drug in the world. It is a stimulant of the central nervous system, and, if taken in moderation, can increase alertness and talkativeness and decrease fatigue.
It effects the body by increasing the heart rate and rhythm, affecting the circulatory system, acting as a diuretic, and stimulating gastric acid secretions. It may elevate blood pressure and inhibit glucose metabolism which would cause a rise in blood sugar levels.
Caffeine may postpone fatigue, interfere with sleep and if taken at bedtime,
usually delays the onset of sleep, shortens sleeptime and reduces the average “depth of sleep”. It also increases the amount of dream sleep (REM) early in the night while reducing it overall.
Taken as a beverage caffeine takes five minutes to reach all body tissues, and peak blood levels are reached in 30 minutes. It has a half-life of three and a half hours. Caffeine is usually rapidly and completely absorbed from the gastrointestinal track, and there is no day-to-day accumulation.
Regular use of over 600 mg a day (approximately 5 cups) may cause chronic insomnia, breathlessness, persistent anxiety and depression, mild delirium, stomach upset, and heart disease. Though evidence is so far inconclusive, caffeine has been suspected as a factor in cancer of the bladder and renal pelvis, fibrocyctic disease in women, and increased incidence of spontaneous abortions and stillbirths, breech deliveries and cyanosis at birth.
Dependence
and
tolerance
. There is caffeine dependence. Some people feel dependence on coffee is primarily psychological but regular use of 350 mg (about 3 cups) or more a day can result in a physical dependence. The most prominent withdrawal symptom is often a quite severe headache which can be relieved by taking caffeine. Other withdrawal symptoms are irritability and fatigue. With regular use of caffeine partial tolerance develops to some or all of its effects.
Miscellaneous
. Caffeine is primarily consumed in tea and coffee but is also found in cola drinks, cocoa, certain headache pills, diet pills and patent stimulants. Some common sources and the amount of caffeine in each are listed below.
Common
Sources
of
Caffeine18
Coffee (5oz)
percolated
|
110
|
dripolator
|
150
|
instant
|
66
|
decaf brewed
|
4.5
|
instant brewed decaf
|
2
|
Soft Drinks
Dr Pepper
|
61
|
Tab
|
45
|
Coca-Cola
|
42
|
Pepsi-cola
|
35
|
Instant/brewed tea (5 min
brew)
|
45
|
Cocoa
|
13
|
Milk chocolate (1 oz)
|
6
|
Drugs
Vivarin Tablet
|
200
|
Nodoz
|
100
|
Excedrin
|
65
|
Empirin/Anacin
|
32
|
Dristan
|
16.2
|
I have read no estimate of the number of people in the U.S. who have more than 350 mg caffeine daily.
Cocaine
Effects
on
body
. Cocaine is a stimulant of the central nervous system and can cause feelings of extreme euphoria, illusions of increased mental and physical strength and sensory awareness, decrease in hunger, pain and the need for sleep, intensified heart beat, sweating, dilation of pupils and a rise in body temperature. The euphoria may be followed by irritability, depression, insomnia and extreme paranoia. Formication is common. This is the belief and feeling that ants or other insects are running up and down the skin. In some cases delirium, hallucinations, muscle spasms and pain in the chest may occur. Male users may become impotent. The loss of appetite may cause malnutrition and anemia. Many of these symptoms may be reversed simply by stopping the drug.
The effects of the drug usually last from 2 to 4 hours. Both heavy and light users eventually develop a runny nose, eczema around the nostrils and gradual deterioration of the nasal cartilage.
Death from cocaine overdose is rare, although such instances are on the increase. An overdose usually results in respiratory arrest. Death may also be caused by heart rhythm disturbance, high fever or convulsions.
19
Dependence
and
tolerance
. Physical dependence is rare except for heavy users. When this does occur the withdrawal symptoms are reported to be great hunger, irritability, extreme fatigue, serious depression, prolonged periods of restless sleep, apathy and disorientation. Psychological dependence is more common because users get “hooked” on the feeling of euphoria, and their entire existence begins to revolve around the next dose. If this dependence is severe, the user will experience a deep depression when the effects of the drug wears off.
Although tolerance to cocaine has not been firmly established, there is evidence that the same dose frequently repeated will not produce similar symptoms over a period of time.
Miscellaneous
. Cocaine is usually sniffed or injected. In its usual street form it is not effective when smoked. However, in the 1970s, a process was developed to convert regular street cocaine into “freebase” cocaine. Freebase has a lower vaporizing temperature than regular cocaine and therefore smoking does not destroy it. This cocaine distillate is called “crack” or “rock”.
It (freebase) is rapidly absorbed by the lungs and carried to the brain in a few seconds. The brief euphoria that results is quickly replaced by a feeling of restless irritability. The posthigh after freebase can be so uncomfortable, that in order to maintain the high, users often continue smoking until they either run out of cocaine or are completely exhausted.
20
It is estimated that there are about 30 million cocaine users in the U.S.
Cocaine is a controlled substance. It is classified as a Schedule II drug which means (1) it has a high potential for abuse, (2) it has currently accepted medical use in treatment in the U.S., and (3) abuse of this drug may lead to severe psychological or physical dependence.
Marijuana
Effects
on
the
body
. Marijuana is absorbed slowly and incompletely by the stomach and is much more effective when smoked. It is almost completely metabolized by the liver, is distributed to all the organs, forms deposits in fatty tissue and crosses the placental barrier.
When smoked it takes effect in a few minutes, peaks in 10-30 minutes and last 2-4 hours depending on the potency. When eaten it takes effect in 30-60 minutes, peaks in 2-3 hours and last three to five hours. Marijuana has a halflife of 28-56 hours.
The effects of marijuana are affected by a number of variables such as (1) the quality of the drug, (2) the dosage, (3) the experience and expectations of the user and (4) the environment.
It the dose is very high it can produce hypnotic and psychedelic effects including distortions of time and space, enhanced sensory perceptions, euphoria and free-flowing thoughts. Sometimes anxiety and paranoia can occur, but this is usually with novice users. Some chronic smokers become lethargic and lose their ambition and interest in everything except smoking marijuana.
The most common physical effects reported with moderate use are dryness of mouth and throat, increase pulse rate and heart action, increase in appetite especially for sweets, red eyes, slight impairment of reflexes and psychomotor coordinated tasks such as driving, and sometimes nausea due to dizziness or anxiety. These symptoms disappear after a few hours except for impaired driving skills which can last up to 10 hours.
Dependence
and
tolerance
. A user can develop a moderate psychological dependence on its euphoric and sedative effects. The degree of physical dependency is unknown. Reported withdrawal symptoms are insomnia, hyperactivity and decreased appetite. The body can develop tolerance for it.
According to the National Commission on Marijuana and Drug Abuse, alcohol and tobacco are the two substances most commonly used by regular marijuana smokers. When alcohol is taken with marijuana there is greater impairment of motor and mental skills than with either drug alone.
21
Miscellaneous
. After caffeine, nicotine and alcohol, marijuana is the fourth most popular abused substance in the world. Despite its illegal status it is estimated that there are about 30 million users in the U.S. Its use continually increased until 1978-1979. Since then it has somewhat declined. See data in Figures 11-14 in the last section.
Marijuana is considered a controlled substance and is classified as a Schedule I drug. This means (1) it has a high potential for abuse, (2) it has no currently accepted medical use in treatment in the U.S. and (3) there is a lack of accepted safety for use of the drug under medical supervision. Possession is considered a misdemeanor and sale of it a felony.
Nicotine
Effects
on
the
body
. Ingesting nicotine causes a temporary stimulation or “kick” because nicotine causes the discharge of epinephrine from the adrenal cortex. The epinephrine stimulates the central nervous system and other endocrine glands which cause a sudden release of glycogen—a simple sugar. Stimulation is followed by depression and fatigue which causes the user to seek another cigarette to restimulate the adrenals. At the same time there is a rise in the acidity level of urine to enhance the elimination rate of nicotine and further need for more nicotine.
Many people who try to break the vicious cycle and are not able to, become further depressed. Perhaps the most devastating social effects of nicotine is that it leaves countless addicts feeling guilty and/or powerless.
22
When taken in smoke nicotine takes 60 seconds to reach the brain, but has a direct effect on the body for up to 30 minutes. That is why smokers who are dependent on nicotine need at least one cigarette every half hour. This adds up to a pack and a half a day.
Cigarette smoke has more than just nicotine in it. It is comprised of a dozen gases (particularly carbon monoxide), particulate matter, nicotine and tar. The tar predisposes the user to lung cancer, emphysema and bronchial disorders. The carbon monoxide increases vulnerability to cardiovascular disease. Nicotine plays a significant role in many serious diseases, most of which have a high fatality rate. Some of these are chronic bronchitis, emphysema, Buerger’s disease (a disease which can lead to gangrenous conditions), and coronary and cerebral occlusions-heart attacks and strokes.
The most common and serious of all long-term effects of smoking is lung cancer, which proves to be fatal in over 90% of cases. Relatively rare in the early 1900s, today lung cancer is a leading cause of death from cancer. An average male smoker runs a 10-times greater risk of death from lung cancer than a nonsmoker: women smokers run a 5-times greater risk. The tar in a cigarette contains many constituents known to cause cancer in experimental animals. The hair-like cilia on the membranes of the lungs (which work to keep the lungs clean) can become damaged or paralyzed by the tar. When the cilia are not working properly the lungs become vulnerable to pneumonia and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Cancer of the esophagus, mouth, lips, and larynx are also associated with cigarette smoking.
23
Women who smoke when they are pregnant run two times the risk of having a stillborn infant. Most babies born of smoking women are smaller than normal and are often premature.
Some possible less severe short-term effects of nicotine are sweating, vomiting, and throat irritation. Other effects which typically lead to more serious long term conditions are increased heart rate and blood pressure-leading to myocardial dysfunction and arteriosclerosis, a drop in skin temperature and increased respiration which may cause chronic hyperventilation and dimness or blurring of vision which can lead to blindness.
Dependence
and
tolerance
. Casual use of even three or four cigarettes can develop into a definite physical and psychological dependence. Because smoking is sometimes used as a tranquilizer during times of stress or as a pleasure enhancer after meals or at social gatherings, the psychological dependence is often more difficult to break than the physical dependence. The withdrawal symptoms include irritability, weight gain, depression and preoccupation with the lack of smoking. It usually takes a full year to completely break the habit. Withdrawal symptoms that usually subside quickly are fatigue, dizziness, headache and shortness of breath.
Nonsmokers can be affected by the toxic substances of cigarette smoke in the air around them. They may get eye and nasal irritation, headache and cough from cigarette smoke.
Miscellaneous
. By government estimate over 50 million Americans smoke tobacco. This makes it the most addictive drug in the U.S.
As cigarette smoking increased, so did the anti-smoking forces. Their effort to educate and force legislation probably has contributed significantly to the recent decline in cigarette consumption in the U.S. The following data published by the U.S. Department of Agriculture in the June 1986 issue of
Tobacco
Situation
and
Outlook Report
is quite interesting. Hopefully we are looking at a maximum, 1982, and experiencing a decline that will continue.
Cigarette
Consumption
Year
|
Amount
Consumed
(in billions)
|
1977
|
616.5
|
1978
|
618.0
|
1979
|
616.0
|
1980
|
622.0
|
1981
|
637.0
|
1982
|
635.7
|
1983
|
620.0
|
1984
|
600.0
|
1985
|
598.0
|
1986
|
587.5 (estimated)
|
Graphing
Drug
Data
Having looked at some current views of the drug scene, a brief history, and some more detailed aspects of the drug issue, let’s take a closer look at the results of the latest High School Senior Survey. To look at it really isn’t good enough. We want to graph it. The purpose of this section is to both work with current drug data and further develop graphing skills.
Figure 1 shows a table giving the number of public and private schools and the number of students who participated in these surveys 1975-1985.
(figure available in print form)
Before we start working three things need to be said. (1) we want to be comfortable in using the given data to make tables and graphs Key in this is to find a balance between wanting to be precise and not wanting to go crazy with precision that is neither necessary nor possible for this type of work. Therefore, let’s agree to round all numbers to either whole numbers or to the nearest tenth, whichever makes sense for the particular use.
(2) Don’t panic at the terms “scale”, “rate”, or “ratio”. All three terms mean a comparison of two measurements, and, when you have to use them, you will be given an example. (3) Use graph paper. It will make your work a lot easier, and, therefore, more enjoyable.
Using Tables
(figure available in print form)
The object here is to take a fresh look at using tables. Tables generally give a lot of information in a compact, easy to read form. Some examples of commonly used tables are: tables of contents, time schedules for buses and trains, nutritional information on cereal boxes, register receipts at the super market, comparisons of equivalent metric and standard units of measure, addition and multiplication tables, and calendars.
A good table needs:
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1. A title that clearly states what information is given.
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2. An arrangement that is easy to read.
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3. Labels for all columns and rows.
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4. Source credit for information.
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5. To be neat and attractive.
Figure 3
(figure available in print form)