Section One
: “The Communication of Ideas from the Past to the Present”
Week One
The lessons for these five days will involve a very general presentation of the historical development of the communication of ideas, principally as this evolved into the written word, and much later into fiction. Perhaps the lack of appreciation of language, i.e., reading and writing, experienced by many students, not just learning-disabled,results not only from an inability to use it effectively, but also because of a very basic lack of understanding, concerning the purposes of language. It seems important, then, to spend some time explaining and discussing some background of language with the students.
The first lesson will focus on the oral tradition, communication by word-of-mouth, and pictography, communication by means of pictures. Examples of each will be presented to the students and discussed. Ancient folk tales, early cave drawings, American indian pictographs, hieroglyphics, cuneiform, the pyramids and the Rosetta Stone will be discussed in terms of the purposes for which they were drawn or written.
The second lesson will discuss the transition of communication from the oral tradition and pictography to some ancient languages such as, Hebrew, Greek, Arabic, and Latin. A brief discussion of various stories from this time could be introduced. Excerpts from
The Odyssey
could be read to the students, as well as, parables from
The Old Testament
. The students are aware of these stories from television and cinema. They will be surprised to find out when and where they were created, and in what languages! In discussing these stories with the students, it must be emphasized that the stories had their beginnings as oral narrations when written language was unknown. Even at the time of Homer (800 B.C.) these stories were communicated orally. They were not written down until approximately 400 B.C. As a follow-up lesson a poster could be made showing examples of letter configurations from each language. A related activity to this lesson could be to show each student how to write his name in each of the languages. This poster could be kept in the room for display.
The third lesson will center around the development of some modern languages. The students may be very surprised to learn that English is considered a modern language. A brief discussion concerning the evolution from Latin of the Romance languages: French, Italian, Spanish and Portuguese will be presented. Examples of words common in form and meaning will be presented in several of these languages. This will be very interesting to the Hispanic student who will be able to compare his language to the others. To aid in an explanation of the development of the Germanic languages, and its relationship to English, a map could be shown detailing the migrations of the Germanic tribes down through Europe and into England. A brief discussion of the Norman Conquest of England in 1066 by William of Orange (France) will help to explain the influence of the Latin language on the English language as we know it today. For an activity examples of early ballads, epics and
The Canterbury Tales
by Chaucer can be read aloud to the students and discussed. Again, it will be important to emphasize why these stories were created and that they were at first narrations to be read aloud. A follow-up activity for this lesson could be the construction of a time line. Given the approximate dates of the existence of the ancient languages, the Romance languages, the Germanic languages and English itself, each student could construct his own. It will be a good idea for them to color code the types of languages as they place them on the line.
The fourth lesson will discuss the invention of Gutenberg’s printing press, and the first printing of a text,
The Bible
. The students will be amazed to learn that before this time books had been copied by hand word-by-word. The fact that religious monks spent lifetimes cloistered away copying texts will be a totally unbelievable to them. A few parables from The Bible could be chosen for the students to read by themselves or for those students with reading problems to be read along with a tape. The following discussion could be used as a simple introduction to the concepts of some basic elements of fiction. Asking questions such as; what was this man like? Describe where this man lived? What happened in the story? What was the moral of the story? Can all be used to begin the student thinking in terms of what parts, or elements exist within a story.
The fifth lesson will be a field trip to various Yale facilities; museums and libraries. The purpose of the trip will be to allow the students to see first-hand some examples of what we will have been discussing all week. The trip will include visits to the Peabody Museum to view the American indian exhibit (pictographs), the Yale Art Museum, and the Yale Beinecke Rare Book Library (the Gutenberg Bible, rare manuscripts and texts).
Week Two
This week will begin with a very general overview and discussion of the development of the
written
communication of ideas and the development of the practice of
reading
to oneself in the centuries following the invention of the printing press (1450). The spread of knowledge, the many technological advances, the discovery of and travel to the new parts of the world, the economic and political changes which restructured the societies all contributed to the development of new ideas by man. Communicating these complex ideas to others was important. As a result of this two general types of written communication became more developed and refined, non-fiction and fiction. For the purposes of defining these to the student the following explanations can be given to them.
Non-fiction
is written ideas dealing with real persons and events which includes scientific and technical texts, historical works, as well as religious and political works. The second type of writing,
fiction
, can be defined as the written communication of ideas which are usually general truths or themes about human existence. These themes were and still are expressed through the literary forms of plays, poems, novels, and in more recent times, the short story.
With the students a discussion limited to plot and theme of some early plays and novels, and perhaps some poetry could be structured as follows; 1)
Romeo and Juliet
, William Shakespeare app. 1594-96, 2)
Robinson Crusoe
, Daniel Defoe 1719, 3) Frankenstein Mary Shelley 1818. The purpose for choosing these works is that the students, again, are aware of them. I am sure, however, that they have no idea of when, why and how they were first written. The students should be very interested in some general background concerning these works. During the discussion several points should be emphasized. The first is that Shakespeare in many ways wrote within the framework of the oral tradition. His plays were meant to be watched and listened to in a theater, not to be read to oneself. This also was true of poetry. It was meant to be listened to as ideas presented in rhythmical patterns. It was the longer story, the novel, Which was written for another to read silently to himself. This specific type of fiction began to develop in the early 1700’s, examples of this are works by Daniel Defoe (
Robinson Crusoe
) and Henry Fielding (
Tom Jones
and
Joseph Andrews
). Another point to be emphasized in the discussion is perhaps a feminist one, why would a woman in 1818 write a novel about a man creating a monster?! At this time, 1818, the audience for novels was well-to-do women, because they had more leisure time at home.
As the development of written communication, specifically fiction, progressed man worked at refining it. He did this by searching for ways to communicate his ideas more clearly and effectively. Thus, techniques and structures for writing fiction were developed, reworked, and polished continually as man tried to communicate all he knew and felt in a world quickly becoming more and more complex.
The purpose of the second lesson will be to introduce and define for the students some of these basic elements which writers used, and still do, to help them tell/write their story. In this activity the students will be shown a set of photographs and through the sequencing of shots a story will be presented. Using the visual cues in the pictures the students will be asked to discuss the story in terms of
plot
—What is happening here? Make a list of the events. Prove it;
character-
Describe the people. What kind of person do you think he/she is?;
setting
-Describe the time and place. How do you know? Prove it;
theme
—What’s the point of this sequence of pictures? Give it a title. Is there a moral to this story?;
point of view
; From whose perspective is the story being told? Hopefully, through this very concrete exercise a clear comprehension of the five elements, how they are used and for what purposes should be understood by the students.
The third lesson will be a film presentation of the short story “The Lottery” by Shirley Jackson. After viewing the film the students will be asked to briefly and generally discuss (analyze) the story in relation to the five elements. They should do this in the same way in which they approached the photograph-sequence story. Perhaps it will be necessary to give the students a worksheet listing the five elements along with variations of the questions used in the photo lesson.
The last lesson of this week will be totally student-centered. It should take two to three days to complete depending on the types of students in the group. Each student will be assigned a task, preferably decided by the students themselves, and as a group they will develop their own fictional story. The story will be in the photo-sequence format, and the students must use the five elements to help tell/structure the story. For convenience,an instant photo camera should be used.
Week Three
The last week of section one has two purposes. First, to briefly present an overview of the various developments in the communication of ideas by man within the last century, and also, to discuss and define the short story and its evolution within the same time period.
The first lesson will discuss the invention of photography, film, radio, and television. The discussion will include the invention of roll film by Eastman in 1889 and the invention of Thomas Edison’s Kinethoscope (1894) and Vitascope (1896). Their modification and development into the first one-reel silent film narration
The Great Train Robber
y directed by Edwin S. Porter in 1903 will also be discussed. The students should be told that it wasn’t until 1927 that
The Jazz Singer
was made, the first motion picture with sound. The relationship of this to the invention of radio in 1920 should also be discussed. A particularly interesting part of the discussion for the students will be the development of television. Its first public broadcast was not in the U.S. but in London in 1936. Not until 1941 was television publicly broadcast in America, and color television was not available until 1954—only thirty years ago! There are many texts available containing photographs and detailed discussions of the development of photography, radio, movies and television. I have included some of them in my bibliography and suggest that on the day of this lesson they be brought in for the students to read and discuss. A supplemental activity, yet a very important one, would be another trip to the Yale Art Museum. At the museum there is a very interesting exhibit discussing the development of photography and film, including photographs and actual examples of early equipment.
The second lesson will discuss, in general, the development of forms of written communication which occurred concurrently with the new technically-based communication forms. This rapidly developing industrial society needed additional ways of communicating its complex information quickly and continually. Expanding industry and the sciences needed journals to spread their knowledge to others. Eastern businesses and the homesteaders traveling and settling in the West needed a means of determining the supplies and demands available across great distances which resulted in the development of the catalogue. The increasing growth of the cities, the growth of the American population, the development of public education all helped to influence the huge newspaper industry which was to develop in America. In a society where information and events were changing daily this increasingly aware public needed and wanted a means of keeping up with what was new and important. Although none of these communication forms were totally new, the sophistication, numbers, and availability of each type were tremendously increased. This was also true of the magazine. This rapidly developing society not only wanted information, but also wanted some of it in depth. They had interests in certain topics and looked for formats to communicate discussions and explanations. The magazine served to not only help educate, but also to entertain. It was in the magazine that many later-to-be famous writers created stories to help them gain exposure, money and experience. The magazine allowed the writers to communicate ideas about life and the human condition, but they had to do it in a new way, more efficiently and effectively. A related activity to this lesson would be a trip to the New Haven Public Library. A tour by the librarian of old newspapers and magazine publications can be very easily arranged by calling the library ahead of time for an appointment, as well as, explaining what it is the group would like to see.
The third lesson will discuss the development of the short story as a unique form of fiction. Essentially, the short story was a continuation of the oral tradition, much like early folktales and parables which were meant to be enjoyed and to present a theme. The short story, however, presented this story in a new and very different manner. Quite simply, it had as its basis the written word rather than oral. It was the manipulation of these words within a tight framework which created its effectiveness. The discussion can include one of the earliest short story collections, Washington Irving’s
Sketchbook
(1820). These stories were sketches of people in Irving’s native New York. Many relied on old German folk tales he had heard growing up. Some of these were the basis for the characters of Rip Van Winkle and Ichabod Crane. Nathaniel Hawthorne and Edgar Allan Poe should also be discussed. Poe wrote a critique of Hawthorne’s short story collection
Twice Told Tales
(1837). This statement of what constitutes a well-written short story was used as a guideline for many short story writers even into the twentieth century. Many of Poe’s ideas concerning the structure of the short story have come to serve as a definition of it. He believed that a short story should be brief and unified strive towards a single effect. To accomplish this the story needed to be structured in this way: 1) ability to be read at one sitting, 2) a single or limited number of characters, incidents, style and tone, 3) efficient use of words. The student should be told that although the basic form of the short story does exist today, yet in a refined state, it is the style and themes of the short story which have undergone the greatest change within the last century. Irving, Hawthorne and Poe all wrote about romantic situations which were not real. With time the short story began to reflect more and more the world as it truly existed. Eventually the stories began to examine and question every aspect of human existence. The short stories of today explore the multitude of realities of contemporary life. A related activity to this discussion could include having the students skim through various types of magazines to locate short stories. A compilation of the types of topics and themes found in the stories could be written on the board. From this a discussion with the students could lead to some conclusions on their part concerning which issues are of concern to society today.
The purpose of the fourth lesson is to present the short story to the students as a unique form of literature. At the beginning of the week the students should be assigned a movie to watch on television for homework. In this lesson during class the students will see a film of a short story (one can be chosen from the catalogue listed in the bibliography). After they have watched the short story both films will be compared in terms of the five elements they have been studying, as well as, the definition of the short story as presented by Poe.
The purpose of the fifth and last lesson of section one will be to summarize the overall points from our discussions of the development of different forms of human communication from its beginnings until the present day. The last half of the lesson will concern possibilities for forms of communication in the future. The computer, its languages and future types and uses will be discussed. A follow-up activity should include a visit to the school’s computer lab.
In conclusion, it remains important for the student to understand that although the communication forms available to us today are many and complex, not all serve the purpose of helping us explore ourselves and the world around us, hopefully, helping us to understand both better. Through history human beings have used the written word plus their imagination to communicate these ideas through literature. Whether this will ever change in the future we don’t know, but for today the importance of reading literature for an individual’s, as well as, a society’s development is invaluable.
Section Two
—“Reading Five Short Stories”
This section is the reading section of the unit. This section will be, for the most part, student-centered. Hopefully, the independent format of the lessons will stimulate the thinking of each student. Further group discussions should allow the students to not only stimulate each others thinking, but also to develop critical thinking skills by reacting positively and negatively to each others ideas.
The overall teaching plan for section two will be centered around five short stories concentrating on one per week. The first two days of each week will be assigned for the reading of the story. On the third day the students will be given a reaction sheet. The sheet will be organized to include ideas relating to the five elements of fiction, as well as, the specific elements of the short story. The students will use these guidelines as prompters or stimulators in formulating their own reactions and analyses of the story. The fourth day will be for group discussion by the students. Using their reaction sheets the students will share their analyses of the story and react to them. At the end of the discussion the students, as a group, will fill in one summary sheet. Listed on the sheet will be the five elements and other questions related to the particular story. As a group, the students will fill in the information. Day five, hopefully Friday, will be the summation day. At the beginning of the period each student will receive a grading sheet. On the sheet will be listed the names of each member of the group. Each student will fill in a grade for himself and each of the other members. These will be averaged by the teacher along with a teacher-grade counting for a certain percent of the total grade. The criteria for deciding what constitutes an A, B, C, D, or F and what percentage the student evaluation and teacher evaluation count for should all be decided in a class meeting before the beginning of the lessons in section two. When the evaluation activity has been completed the teacher can go over the group summary sheet with the students, as well as, the individual sheets. Particularly interesting ideas by individual students should be pointed out to the group. This time also should be used for the teacher to modify any ideas on which the students may have been confused or even incorrect. The last section of the period can be used by the students in a variety of ways. Additional short stories by the author or encyclopedias containing information on the author’s life could be made available for the students to read. For those students who are artistically talented materials can be made available if they would like to react to the story in this manner. Recordings of the author’s work could also be used. If none are available they can be recorded by the teacher.
The following discussion will concern the five short stories to be read by the students.
“The Black Cat” Edgar Allan Poe
Plot
|
A psychologically-troubled man driven to drink recalls events leading to his downfall. He sees his drinking as the reason why he turns against his beloved cat and kills it. He gets another cat only to turn against it too. Unfortunately, he kills his wife instead of the cat during one of his rages. He, then, buries his wife behind the wall in his cellar. Several days later the police arrive and search the house for his wife. They find nothing. Quite pleased with himself, the man strikes up a conversation with the police concerning his well-built house. As he strikes the cellar wall to prove it, a cry and then a scream are heard. The police break down the wall to find the dead corpse of his wife with the cat sitting on her head. He had buried the cat also.
|
Characters
|
The
husband
has no name. Obviously his problems are psychologically based rather than in alcohol as he believes. His problem is in his perception of himself. This results in his inability to relate to the world around him. He sees the world (people and pets) as not understanding him and plotting against him. He sees alcohol as creating his increasingly negative actions against others rather than its freeing those impulses which are within him.
The wife
also has no name. We know that she doesn’t fit into the world either because the husband states, “she felt as I did” about other people and animals. The only other time she is mentioned is when she is killed. It is significant that she jumps in front of her husband to protect the cat from being killed. While she may have had socialization problems, she doesn’t seem to be deranged as does her husband.
The cat
, number two, has a very complex personality. It seems human-like, aware of the reactions it is having upon its master. The question is however, was this the deranged, paranoid man’s perception or the reality?
|
Setting
|
The man is talking from a jail or hospital, but which setting is never mentioned. The only setting which is detailed is the cellar of the home and this is done in great detail.
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Theme
|
We are often unaware of the evil and destructive forces which are locked within us. Even when they suddenly rage from within we are unaware of their significance as basic elements of our being. (Other themes are possible here, too.)
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Point of View
|
First person. The husband is the narrator of the story. This serves two purposes; To allow the character to reveal himself to the reader, therefore, chillingly exposing his deranged perceptions; and also to develop a relationship between the narrator and the reader so that we can “objectively” see him for what he is.
|
“The Necklace” Guy de Maupassant
Plot
|
A pretentious young woman, unhappy in her middle class existence, longs for the finer things in life. Her sensitive, but unfortunately weak, husband tries to make her happy by bringing home tickets to a municipal ball. Rather than being excited the wife is upset because she has nothing elegant enough to wear. The husband suggests that she borrow a diamond necklace from her friend. She does and has a marvelous time at the ball, dancing all night while her husband waits in the cloakroom. When they arrive home they discover the necklace is lost! Too cowardly to face the woman and explain the situation, they use the husband’s only savings along with a bank loan to replace the necklace with no one knowing. To pay back the loan the once-pretentious wife now has to clean offices and take in wash. One day, ten years later, she meets her friend in the park. The woman hardly recognizes her. This changed wife now has the courage to tell about the necklace. To everyone’s surprise the woman replies that the necklace was not diamond but glass.
|
Characters
|
Madam Loisel as the name suggests, mademoiselle, is a woman with child-like perceptions. This is her central problem. It is not until she is forced to experience the harsh realities of life that she finally matures. Then she has the courage to tell her friend the truth.
Monsieur Loisel
also reacts to relationships and events in immature ways. He gives in to his wife’s self-centered needs. He, like his wife, is too cowardly to face the owner of the necklace. Instead he gives up his savings and watches his wife clean houses.
Madam Forestier
is an old school friend of Madam Loisel who luckily married well.
|
Setting
|
The setting is not very detailed. The scenes take place at their homes, at the ball, at the park, but none are described. Most of the words in the story are used in dialogue between characters. Perhaps this was more important to the author as a means of the characters revealing themselves and thus the theme.
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Theme
|
What appears to be of value in life we may find to be worthless. We have to examine and define the true meanings of life. (Other themes are possible.)
|
“To Build a Fire” Jack London
Plot
|
A miner sets out for his isolated camp in the Yukon. He is alone accompanied only by his dog. He has been told by an old-timer that the rule is never to travel alone when it is more than fifty degrees below zero. The man thinks this is foolish. “All a man
has to do is use his
head
.” Unfortunately this isn’t true. Too many uncontrollable and unpredictable events occur and the man perishes frozen and alone, deserted by his dog.
|
Characters
|
The man has no name. He is too self-assured, too cocky. He has an unrealistic view of the insignificance of the details of his journey. He sees himself as all-knowing and controlling. He laughs at the experienced old-timer’s warnings. His problem is in his misunderstanding of the powers of nature upon him. He sees himself, man, as in total control of himself and the world. Thus he is not prepared for the consequences.
The dog
survives. He follows his basic instincts, believing in them, and respecting the forces of nature around him. He sees the man as a fool.
|
Theme
|
Nature is a very powerful force in the world around us. It is uncontrollable and unpredictable. Man is foolish to overlook nature’s significance and effect on his life. (Others?)
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Point of View
|
Omniscient. We are able to read the man’s and the dog’s minds. In this way we see the truth in the dog’s reactions leading to his ultimate survival, and the folly of man’s leading to his death.
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Setting
|
The setting is the cold, isolated and desolate Yukon. The setting is described in great detail. This is to emphasize the importance of nature and its power and forces upon us.
|
A selection from Black Boy Richard Wright
Plot
|
A young city boy is forced to grow up because of circumstances beyond his control. His father deserts the family, and he now in many ways has to assume that role. One evening the boy is sent shopping for food. He feels grown-up and responsible, however a gang assaults him and steals his money. He returns home crying and scared. His mother gives him more money and sends him out again. Petrified he sets out a second time, and again the gang assaults and robs him. When he returns home his mother refuses to let him in, but sends him back a third time with a heavy stick telling him not to come home without the groceries. Without a choice he sets out again. The gang approaches, but this time, almost instinctively, the boy lashes out with the stick crashing skulls and bodies. The gang runs away in disbelief. The parents of the boys come out and threaten the boy. He yells back. Then he leaves, buys his groceries and returns home.
|
Characters
|
The young boy is a timid child who is forced by circumstances beyond his control to become hardened and violent. The conflict is between the boy as a child (individual) and the forces which affect and in many ways take that identity away from him.
The mother
is forced like her son to change. She, too, is affected by circumstances in which she has had no decision, however, does she have some control over her life as an adult? Should she have protected him more, not forced him into the violent, hard world? or was it inevitable?
The gang’s
identity is ambivalent. They attack repeatedly the innocent child, yet when the attack is turned on them they run home for protection. They are neither children nor men, but the worst of both.
|
Setting
|
A city with violence and unhappiness. The author does not spend much time detailing any specifics of the setting. He uses the action of the story to emphasize his point.
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Point of View
|
First person. This relates us to the character closely. We feel with him. We intimately observe his actions, feelings and perceptions. We watch him change and understand why.
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Theme
|
In this complex changing world there are many forces affecting us beyond our control. Many of these problems are within the very nature of our society. To survive we’ve got to face those realities. Unfortunately what is lost in the struggle may not be worth the outcome. (Others?)
|
Because the reading and writing levels of my groups are usually quite diverse, it is always difficult to find material which we can use together as a group. As a solution to this I purposely chose five stories which are available within the New Haven School System in texts of multiple reading levels. It is essential for each student to have a text which is matched appropriately to his reading level. In some cases when the level is severely deficient a read-along tape will have to be used. This alone can promote reading development. As important as matching the level of the text to the level of the student is matching the level of evaluation materials to not only the student’s reading level, but also his writing level. Thus before beginning these lessons specific preparations and several evaluation procedures will have to be completed. For reading there are three steps. 1) Each student’s reading level will have to be evaluated. This may be done with a standardized achievement test, an informal teacher-made test, or an oral reading inventory. The best evaluation would be to use all three. 2) The texts will have to be chosen according to their readability levels. There are several popular formulas which may be used to evaluate a text. The simplest and perhaps most reliable is the Fry Readability Formula. A chart is included in this unit which explains how to use the formula. 3) If after all these procedures there are still students for whom no text is available on their approximate level then a read-along tape must be recorded. Using this formula I evaluated the texts in this unit and developed this chart.
Story
|
Text
|
Reading Level
|
“The Black Cat”
|
1) Spotlight on Literature
|
1.5-2.0
|
Edgar Allan Poe
|
Collection 3
|
|
Random House Publishers
|
|
2) An Edgar Allan Poe Reader
|
5.0
|
|
Adapted Classics
|
|
Globe Publishers
|
|
3) Original Text
|
10.0
|
“The Necklace”
|
1) Spotlight on Literature
|
3.5-4.0
|
Guy de Maupassant
|
Collection 3
|
|
2) Original Text
|
10.0
|
“To Build a Fire”
|
1) Spotlight on Literature
|
1.5-2.0
|
Jack London
|
Collection 1
|
|
2) Original Text
|
9.0
|
from
Black Boy
|
1) Spotlight on Literature
|
5.0
|
Richard Wright
|
Collection 3
|
|
2) Original Text
|
5.0
|
Determining the written expression levels of the students is more difficult. This evaluation must be accomplished with teacher-made inventories. Through these informal tests the teacher can evaluate the spelling, sentence structure, paragraph structure, grammar, vocabulary development and overall ability of each student to communicate through writing. A sequential checklist can be developed using these skills. Each student can then be plotted according his written expression abilities. Thus if a student can barely spell the words in a four word sentence, it is unrealistic to expect him to communicate his ideas about the short stories in complete sentences, paragraphs or essays. Those skill developments should be left for another unit. Some students may have adequate spelling skills but very poor concepts concerning sentence and paragraph structure. This may be particularly true of the Hispanic student just developing English skills. These students will put down one or two sentences and leave the rest in their heads. Again, to expect these students to react to the stories in essay form would be unproductive. The goal, therefore, is to evaluate the written expression level of the student, plot it on the checklist, and use all the skills from the checklist and above to develop materials. Following is a general chart developed to help prepare appropriate evaluation materials.
Skill Level Method
Spelling
1) oral testing
2) multiple choice
3) matching
4) unscrambling
5) charts, drawings, art work
Sentences
1) oral testing *
2) those methods from the spelling section
3) single sentence completions
4) sentences within paragraph completions
5) short answer
6) fill in of short outline
Single Paragraph
1) all from spelling and sentence sections
2) short outline
3) short paragraph
Short Essay
1) all from spelling, sentences and paragraph sections
2) essay
3) supplemental written reports