Africans were a very small, yet distinct minority in New England. The population had grown anywhere from eleven to sixteen thousand by the second half of the 18th century.
The social conditions during slavery in the 17th and 18th centuries are more than cotton, forced labor and bondage in the Deep South. Slave life in the New England colonies of Massachusetts, Connecticut and Rhode Island was somewhat different. Instead of large plantations there were farms so these areas were merely societies with slaves.
The New England states were occupied by so-called Puritans, a religious and moral sect, who tried to justify slavery. They rationalized that it was acceptable if the Africans were prisoners taken by other tribes in a "just war". This probably seemed reasonable to them as they chose to understand the African origins of the whole business of enslaving human beings created in the image of God. In fact, many "good" Puritans, and very often clergy, held slaves. Some owned one or two slaves who were like household help. New slaves and white servants lived close within their masters' families; they shared the same dwelling place and daily activities. Sometimes the slave owners preferred that the slaves had separate cabins so they were built near the owners' dwelling places.
Outside of the religious circles, many northerners owned slaves who worked in agricultural areas. In western Connecticut and Massachusetts, Africans lived mainly in towns and cities near the coast. New London and Fairfield counties in Connecticut had a large concentration of Africans, many of whom worked on farms. Most lived close enough to enjoy friends and acquaintances of their own race. In Rhode Island, landowners had large estates that required a significant labor force. Slaves were also needed to build roads and new cities. Slaves also created wealth by supplying labor in the industrial areas of New England. Mining, shipbuilding, tanning, whaling, and lumbering provided sources of great income for many wealthy Europeans who lived or traded in the north.
There were enslaved people of royal heritage in the New England area. One such person was King Pompey, a slave of Lynn, Massachusetts. He was born a prince in Africa. When he became too old to work, he was still useful to the Africans who would have him as host, guest of honor, or master of ceremonies at many of the holiday celebrations of slaves from neighboring communities. Prince Robinson of Narragansett, Governors Tobiah and Eben Tobias of Derby, Connecticut, King Nero Brewster of Portsmouth, New Hampshire were of royal lineage. American slavery created equality between kings and paupers as the Africans were stripped of their human identities and social classes became nonexistent among the slaveholders. There were other black leaders in towns in Connecticut such as Hartford, Derby, Wethersfield, Norwich and Durham who were born in Africa.
Celebration of African-American Culture
African immigrants, who lived in New England, used their cultural heritage to set a tone for the black community. Many used their free time to earn income, which would often buy their freedom. They helped to support themselves by spinning yarn, build toy drums, make snares and traps for small games. Some made herbal medicine and others cooked. In addition to that, the Africans could always earn extra cash if they played music, sang or danced in order to entertain at white social gatherings. Sunday markets was very popular in Boston, Massachusetts. The poor whites enjoyed the music and revelry that was part of black social gatherings and even adopted some of those activities. Black nannies told stories and sang to the white children that they took care of.
Some students are familiar with or participate in The Freddie Fixer Parade which is an annual celebration in the African American community. This is a joyous occasion of much merry-making and float parades on a specific route through the city of New Haven. I thought it might be especially useful to focus on this event and compare it with the way slaves observed Negro Election Day.
Negro Election Day
(Piersen, 1988) was the most important holiday of the year for the Africans. This festivity helped to form the African American culture in New England. It was common for Africans to elect their kings in their homeland and they sought to get their masters' approval to continue with this tradition. Black governors and kings were elected and their appointments to office celebrated. The candidate needed to have a wealthy master who could afford to financially support the cost of the elections. Slave owners contributed money for entertainment (food), expensive clothes, and horses for the parade in which the king was officially appointed. Because slaves in the north had a close relationship with their owners, they were able to persuade their masters to make generous contributions to the black celebrations. Landowners would lend them horses for the military procession through town. Masters and mistresses would give or lend clothes so that the slaves could march in the finest of apparels. The owners of the elected official would provide food, decorations and drink. The quality of the festivity also reflected on the status of the master in society. Slaves that were poorly dressed or those who did not have extravagant showings in the parades indicated the position of their owners. The title of king or governor was determined by the location of the elections. In Connecticut and Rhode Island, black rulers were called governors just like the title given to their white counterparts. In New Hampshire and Massachusetts, white leaders were called governors and the black leaders were called kings.
On the morning of Election Day, Africans would proceed through the streets with a marching band and flags flying high. There was also a military honor guard escort that sometimes fired occasional salutes as the governor-elect, riding on a horse, proceeded to the poll. The beating of drums accompanied fancily clad slaves as they walked hurriedly to join others on the long journey to cast their votes. The votes were counted, the winner declared and the inaugural parade would begin. At this joyous event, one could hear many African languages being spoken along with some broken English. This was accompanied by music on instruments such as the fiddle, tambourine, banjo and drum. Such activities lasted for about a week and there was very little work done during that time.
In Connecticut, the new governor would ride through town in military style on one of his master's horses. Governors were usually honored with a sash and kings wore crowns or other emblems of royalty. Hartford's governor was sometimes escorted by a troop of about one hundred blacks riding horses and dressed in military style as they moved majestically through the town. In some places such as the Caribbean islands and Brazil, queens and other female officials were elected. Only males were elected in white New England and the slaves chose not to grant office to women, even though in Africa, women held important positions in society.
Celebrations occurred in Connecticut in towns such as Derby, Durham, Farmington, Hartford, Middletown, Norwich, Oxford, Wallingford, Waterbury and Wethersfield during the eighteenth century. By early nineteenth century, Connecticut also hosted black election celebrations in New Haven, Seymour, and Woodbridge. History records that in 1756, elections were held in Newport, Rhode Island. This state also observed the elections in North Kingston, South Kingston, and Warwick Neck. Massachusetts towns like Salem, Danvers, Lynn, Boston, and North Bridgewater joined in the festivities. In addition to that, was Portsmouth in New Hampshire.
White slaveholders viewed these offices of king and governor very useful and convenient ways to maintain the everyday running of the black society. The black rulers made sure that laws were upheld. Stealing was not tolerated and punishment was issued by the African leaders. On the other hand, to the Africans, the presence of black kings and governors represented a proud part of their heritage. Slaves obeyed black rulers not because they wanted an easier life but they recognized their own form of traditional government. Holidays acknowledged the royal heritage of Africa. As the original Africans began to die out, so did the festivities of the Election Day celebrations. After the abolition of slavery, these festivals slowly died out because they were seen as a form of ridicule in which slaves pretended to be kings who mocked the local white population. To the people of African descent, Negro Election Day was a time to celebrate their ancestry with great pride.
Fourth of July
was also another big day for celebration among the slaves as well as whites. Slaves got the day off to attend barbecues and dances. For Africans, this holiday was different because they got to hear political speeches about freedom, independence, and revolution. Some slaves celebrated every holiday that their owners celebrated.
Most slaveholders provided a three-day holiday for Christmas. Some even gave five days off. At times a burning log determined how many days the holiday would last. Slaves would search for the biggest and slowest burning log they could find so they would not have to work for many days. Many owners did not think the slaves were intelligent and they would use it to their advantage.
Even though there were laws that prevented the slaves from existing under human conditions, they managed to develop and maintain a culture of their own and keep some of their African traditions. These early African people helped to establish the African-American society in which both cultures, African and American, were embraced. Today we still celebrate the coming of the Africans and the impact they made on influencing the larger American culture.