All life forms require energy in order to carry out life functions such as eating, breathing, reproduction and growth. This energy comes from the surrounding environment. Life exists in three domains:
eukarya
,
bacteria
, and
archaea.
These eukaryotes include life such as fungi, animals, and plants. Then there are bacteria and archaea which make up most of the microorganisms. The major difference between bacteria and archaea is, not in their physical appearance or morphology, but in their DNA sequences. Bacteria and archaea are similar in that both do not have DNA encapsulated in a cell nucleus whereas eukarya do. (See Figure A)
Since all life forms require energy in order to carry out life functions, energy and electron flow are used interchangeably. Energy, on a chemical/cellular level, is referred to as electrons, which are part of all atoms that make up matter, and organisms need an electron source and an electron sink in order for electrons to flow. Organisms need this electron flow in order to produce ATP. ATP is adenosine triphosphate and is considered as the universal energy currency for metabolism. This allows organisms to reproduce, grow, and to carry out other life functions. Microorganisms, like macroorganisms, gain energy for life from their environment. These are listed below:
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- Photosynthesis is the conversion of light energy into chemical energy.
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- Aerobic respiration is the process in which organic substrates are degraded completely to CO
2
and uses oxygen as the terminal electron acceptor.
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- Anaerobic Respiration is a process in which organic substrates are degraded completely to CO
2
, but using a substance other than oxygen as the terminal electron acceptor.
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- Chemolithotrophy is the production of organic matter from inorganic materials (similar to photosynthesis). Examples: Sulfide Oxidation, Iron Oxidation, Nitrification
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- Fermentation is a process in which organic compounds are degraded or oxidized incompletely.
The purpose of this unit is to provide information to fellow teachers of science that teach ecosystems that there are a vast array of organisms that exist in ecosystems that may be unfamiliar to what we think exists. There are ecosystems that do not rely on a "predator-prey" relationship, but rather a community of organisms existing on metabolic byproducts and chemicals released by neighboring organisms. They will come to realize that not all food chains begin from the energy source of the sun directly, but indirectly. Life forms would not exist without the existence of microorganisms. Scientists believe bacteria are what now exist in our cells as mitochondria. Microorganisms are everywhere and take up the largest population here on Earth. Microorganisms are found in soil, in the oceans, in the air, deep beneath the rocks, and frozen in glaciers. It is believed that microorganisms were the first life form on Earth. All of this information opens up the dynamic world of ecosystems within our bodies understanding that microorganisms inhabit our bodies.
These ecosystems within our bodies are called "microbiomes." These are the microbes that live on and inside our bodies. Scientists have recently discovered that the human body hosts about ten trillion bacteria, mostly not harmful. Bacteria alone outnumber our own cells ten to one. That is about five pounds of body weight due to microbial biomass. Microbes are bacteria, fungi, viruses, yeast, and other little creatures that live in and on us. These microbes and their genes make up our microbiome. New research has found that these benign microbes' aid in boosting the immune system, regulate digestion, prevent infection and can also influence mood. A lot more research is being made in studying people's biomass and differences in the type of bacteria found in different individuals has led researchers to better understand why obesity exist for some people, why certain people that have autism, why people suffer from irritable bowels such as colitis and Crohn's disease. In studying people's microbiomes, also known as our microflora, scientists are hopeful that this research could cure and prevent diseases. The terms microbes and bacteria will be used interchangeably, but for the sake of antibiotics that only kill bacteria, not viruses or fungi, bacteria will be the term most referred to in this unit.
This new study called the Human Microbiome Project is a way for scientists to study the role microbes play in the functioning of our bodies. The largest storehouse of bacteria in the body resides in the gut and scientists call this gut flora. It is known that the bacteria in our guts produce enzymes that help us digest our food. They give us nutrients like vitamin K and B. They also crowd out harmful bacteria.
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Your gut contains more than 100 million neurons-around the same order of magnitude as the number of brain cells-that operate more or less independently from the brain in your skull.
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A rich network of nerve endings in your intestinal wall sends signals directly to your brain via the vagus nerve. Another recent group of research papers, again using models in rodents, shows that this signaling from bottom (gut) up (to the brain) can affect cognitive development and mood.
Without microbes, we would not survive. These bacteria need us and we need them, as well. We share mutuality. Unfortunately, some of these helpful microbes are disappearing due to the over prescribed use of antibiotics, modern sanitation and the increase of C-section births. Many microbes are passed on to an infant at birth when it passes through the mother's womb. The overuse of antibiotics has also led to a rise in antibiotic-resistant bacteria such as MRSA and the loss of "good" bacteria, it appears, could be linked to several immune and metabolic disorders such as asthma, allergies, celiac disease, acid reflux disease, to name just a few.
This may be a reason why there has been such an increase of food allergies such as peanuts and gluten, just to name a few. Having a diet high in processed foods has also led to the decline of bacteria in our bodies because these foods are stripped of all bacteria, the good and the bad. This may be the reason why we have to supplement our diets with probiotics, particularly when we have to take antibiotics. Some scientists are skeptical about probiotics claiming that most of the products out there for consumption may not contain the microbes needed to promote good health in humans. What is suggested is to eat fermented food such as yogurt, kimchi, and sauerkraut. Probiotics are found in the mouth, as well, and help in digestion.
A call to alarm has been sounded by the scientific community that the overuse of antibiotics is causing havoc on our health and a lot of research has been in force to find a way to get around this dilemma. Just the amount of antibiotics used on our livestock alone is over 20 million pounds per year. This will come in the meat we eat, milk we drink, and eggs we consume that gives us additional antibiotics into our systems indirectly. If you are a vegetarian, you will still be victim to these antibiotics in water runoff from farms which will affect groundwater, rivers, and reservoirs.
We need not abandon antibiotics all together, but to use less is best and to focus on making a "smarter" antibiotic. Since bacteria can reproduce at a rate by several million within a few hours, there's no wonder how they can adapt and mutate once introduced to a "hostile" environment, such as the introduction of an antibiotic. That is the reason why there are more antibiotic-resistant bacteria arising every day and the antibiotics are losing. That is why scientists have to think of new ways to combat this phenomenon. We, as humans, live in their world and are just passing through. Therefore we have to trick the pathenogenic bacteria and not harm the helpful bacteria. Studies are presently being done to use helpful bacteria to fight off the harmful bacteria.
Scientists have discovered drugs that can destroy any leftover antibiotics before it harms the "good" bacteria. Scientists are also hopeful that by gene-to-gene basis, they may wipe out resistant bacteria. Scientists are also discovering "natural" bacteria killers. Antimicrobial peptides consist of tiny chains of amino acids-like proteins only smaller.
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They discovered these AMP's in sleeping pupae of giant silk moth and in the African-clawed frog. How these AMP's destroy is by emitting a slight positive electric charge which allows it to stick to the negatively charged outer surface of the bacterial cell membrane, pierces it and fluids rush into the cell destroying it. Another approach is to find a way to turn off a bacterium's call to arms. Scientists call this approach "defanging." For instance, Staphylococcus aureus can stay dormant in the body one day, and then wreak havoc the next. The Staph germ knows when it has reached the right number in order to attack and the immune system is defenseless against the number. If scientist can figure out a way to block these signals, the immune system can take care of the pathogen.
Research has also included looking at genetically modifying vaccines by looking at the genomes of different strains of bacteria, MRSA and targeting them. They call this reverse vaccinology. And the most exciting discovery is prescription probiotics. Scientists looked at the vaginal cavities of women that had no vaginal infections to see if they could isolate "good" bacteria. They identified and gave the specimen to women that had chronic vaginal infections and it proved to be successful. Other studies included isolating bacteria in the gut to help with Crohn's disease, ear infections, streptoccocci which can affect the skin, as well as the throat, those people that kept getting , they lacked the harmless bacteria alpha-streptoccocci. This method has also aided in the field of dental hygiene when a dental microbiologist discovered a genetically engineered Strep. mutans bacteria that could attack harmful Strep.mutans which causes tooth decay bythe secretion of its wastes which is an acid.
When discussing oral hygiene, scientists have discovered over seven hundred different varieties of bacteria. Most people house around thirty to seventy different strains. The two most harmful bacteria to teeth are
streptococcus mutans which causes tooth decay and porphyromonas gingivitis which causes gingivitis which could lead to
periodontitis resulting in tooth loss. Diet is a key factor to healthy teeth and gums. There are foods that are recommended to promote a healthy mouth such as raisins which has phytochemicals that help to kill off bad bacteria in your mouth. They also provide good sugars, fructose and glucose, rather than sucrose which can lead to tooth decay. Milk is another food that promotes a healthy mouth. Not only does it provide calcium for strong teeth and bones, it also provides proteins that prevent tooth-decaying bacteria from sticking to our teeth. Of course brushing and flossing regularly and visits to the dentist all help in having a healthy mouth. We should end the war against our microbiological environment and look to harness in what good that community can offer to us instead.
From the Cell Science Systems, Corp. – Alcat Worldwide, numerous studies have been conducted to test foods that are making us sick.
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Inflammation and chronic activation of the immune system due to food intolerance have been linked to: digestive disorders, migraines, obesity, chronic fatigue, ADD/ADHD, aching joints, skin disorders, arthritis, and many more. Since it has been pointed out previously that there is communication with the gut and the brain, there is an urgency to see how much our micro flora affects theses illnesses.
Alcat Worldwide is a profit organization which suggests all people should be tested to see which foods their bodies cannot tolerate, but they also suggest that "variety is the spice of life." They call this the Rotational Diet.
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History has shown that variety in the human diet is very important to health and wellbeing.
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By eating foods in a particular family one day and then omitting them for at least the next three days, a cumulative sensitizing effect is avoided.
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This time allows the food molecules to "clear" the system, avoiding overload. Having a balanced microbiome will balance our weight, as well according to Raphael Kellman, MD. By giving his patients probiotics, which aide in the recovery of healthy bacteria, he had amazing results with his patients losing and maintaining their weight. When their microbiome in their gut was balanced, everything else improved, including their mood. Refer to Figure G for a more explicit list and locations of micro flora of the human body.