Cheryl A. Canino
Ethnic norms and traditions influence how gender among men and women is experienced. There is a hierarchal sex-based gender privilege of masculinity. The establishment of a singular masculinity is based on male prowess and physical capacities of the male body.23 Men, who are considered disabled, unhealthy, homosexual, not white or disposed of power or the ability to exercise it are deemed less desirable and deficient along the spectrum of a masculine man.24 Through gender-role training, men are taught to be powerful, aggressive, dominant, and forceful initiators of sexual activity.25
Latino male cultural patterns have been conceptualized using the notion of machismo and the set of beliefs and values related to being un hombre (a man).26 Machismo, is a a multidimensional and gendered social construct with deep roots in Mexican and other Latin cultures.27,28 Early conceptualizations of machismo describe the term as an “exaggerated masculinity.” In these “hyper-masculine” cultures, males are depicted as being in control of important decisions in the household and being able to handle most situations on his own without assistance.29
Machismo as a male archetype is characterized by hypermasculine traits like stoicism, aggression, sexism, and heavy drinking, which have been linked to risky behavior and interpersonal difficulties among Latino adults as well as men of other racial-ethnic backgrounds.30 The hypermasculine trait of machismo is often attributed to those considered Latinx or Hispanic-identifying men. Latino men perceived or branded to embody hypermasculine styles, traits, and personas are positioned as rightfully masculine and potentiate legendary status among both peers and family.31 Masculinity is defined as a form of gallantry, the domination of other males, or being the person who stands at the center of the lives of women as both protector and dominator.32 The domination of women and children through force or “ritualized tenderness” is an expression of the archetypal story of patriarchy.33
Although machismo is primarily associated with negative aspects of stereotypical male characteristics and behavior.34 The personality traits and behavioral characteristics defining the essence of machismo contain both positive and less positive qualities.35 The research elaborating a broader range of dispositional qualities in men is important because qualities associated with one dimension of ascribed hypermasculinity in Latino men—often labeled machismo or traditional machismo—frequently are associated with poor or undesirable outcomes in men; a second dimension or factor—caballerismo—is associated with positive and desired outcomes.36
Machismo is a construct that promotes both hyper-masculine ideals (i.e., traditional machismo) as well as notions of family centeredness, social connectedness, and honorable behavior.37 El hombre caballero, the gentlemen reflects the positive aspects of machismo. It also provides roles that also shape the identity and behavior among Latinx. Caballerismo is a significant tradition in Hispanic culture, dating back to medieval codes of honor that were the strong values of Spanish horsemen (caballeros). In contemporary Latino culture, caballerismo embodies positive male images of the nurturing provider who is respectful, defends the weak, and lives by an ethical code of chivalrous values. Caballerismo is correlated with positive aspects of masculinity such as affiliation, nurturance, family protection, responsibility, wisdom, hard work, and spirituality. Caballerismo is associated with caretaking, chivalry, and family involvement.38