The four English feet most commonly used in verse are:
The Iambic Foot
consists of an unstressed syllable followed by a strongly accented one. It is a “skipping” foot: ta-DUM, ta-DUM, ta-DUM. It is seen in print as [ù «] . The following words are iambic: hello, afloat, delay, begin, oppose, believe, dispute, collect, delight, and because.
The Trochaic Foot
is the exact opposite of the iambic. It consists of a strongly stressed syllable followed by an unaccented one. It is a marching foot: DUM-ta, DUM-ta, DUM-ta [« ù]. Such words in trochaic feet are: Tuesday, mother, answer, tender, softly, faster, and rising.
The Dactylic Foot
consists of three syllables, a strongly-stressed syllable followed by two unaccented ones [« ù ù]. It is a “waltzing” rhythm. Dactylic words are: silently, tenderness, hickory, Saturday, fugitive, beautiful, and merriment. DUM-ta-ta, DUM-ta-ta, DUM-ta-ta.
The Anapestic Foot
is the exact opposite of the dactylic. It consists of two unaccented syllables followed by a strongly-stressed syllable. It is a rapid movement: ta-ta-DUM, ta-ta-DUM, ta-ta-DUM [ù ù «]. Such words are: cavalier, intervene, serenade, picturesque, prepossess, and contradict.
Exercise 2: Featuring Feet 1
Directions
Make a list of words using each type of foot. Then write two lines for each form.
Exercise 3: Featuring Feet II
Directions
Read the two anonymous poems which follow. One of them has a jolly trochaic swing mixed with a little anapestic foot; the other has a strong iambic beat. Which one is which? Be prepared to read each poem aloud, stressing the correct beat.
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Fifteen men on a dead man’s chest—
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Yo-ho-ho and a bottle of rum!
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Drink and the devil had done for the rest—
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Yo-ho-ho and a bottle of rum!
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**
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Warm summer sun, shine friendly here;
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Warm western wind, blow kindly here;
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Green sod above, rest light, rest light—
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Good night, dear heart; good night, good night.
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When the stress falls on the last syllable of a foot, it is a
rising
one, as in Budge’s “And off, with a whir of wings.” When the stress falls on the first syllable of a foot, it is a
falling
one, as in Bronte’s “Heavy and dark the night is closing.”
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No discussion of rhythm would be complete—or realistic—without the inclusion of “The Highwayman” by Alfred Noyes. Every student should read it, hear it, learn it, love it! Although it moves away from the theme of the city, the significance is that it
moves.
The highwayman’s riding rhythm could be taking place anywhere and everywhere. These excerpts easily prove the point:
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‘And the highwayman came riding—
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____
Riding—Riding—
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The highwayman came riding, up to the old inn door ...
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Then look for me by moonlight,
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____
Watch for me by moonlight
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I’ll come to thee by moonlight, tho’ hell shall bar the way.
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There is a relentlessness about his ride that convinces the reader that indeed, even hell could not stop this particular rider. The echoes, forming refrains that repeat rhythmically in each stanza, keep up the galloping pace of the horseman. The repetitions of specific words are like the continued hoofbeats in the fateful journey. A good reading of this poem cannot help but stir the imaginations of students.
Exercise 4: Hearing “The Highwayman”
Directions
Read the entire poem, “The Highwayman” by Alfred Noyes. Select
one
stanza and practice reading it aloud. Be sure your reading echoes the rhythm. Be prepared to read (or preferably recite) it in class and discuss how you chose your “pace.”
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Exercise 5: Underground Undulation
Note
: The Teacher should play “‘A Poem on the Underground Wall” from the
Par
s
ley
,
Sage, Rosemary, and Thyme
album by Paul Simon and Art Garfunkel. Ask the students to close their eyes and just feel the rhythm. Can they believe the story (from lyrics on a ditto) could really happen? Why is the tempo so rapid? How are the actions of the man linked to the actions of the train? What feeling is generated here?
Directions
Listen to the song. Then look at the lyrics.
1.
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Why is is called “‘A Poem”?
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2.
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What phrases are the most interesting? What do they make you think about?
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3.
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Which word combinations and sounds best reflect (and create) the rhythm of the piece? How does the author’s choice of specific words contribute to the rhythm?
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Discovering rhythm can be a lot of fun. Go back, for example, to the “cool” poems in the “Word Choice” chapter. Have the students investigate the movement of the three pieces. Certainly the snapping and refrainlike echoes in Sondheim’s “Play It Cool” generate the angry tension and high energy level of the characters. It might be interesting at this point to ask your student what it is about the rhythms of “Disco” that makes the music so popular today. Students should see that the intense, driving, relentless beat says something about the anxieties and economic strivings of the late seventies.
Any number of games, songs, or jingles present your students with the fact that rhythm is an intrinsic part of their environment. Once they understand this fact, young people will find the study of poetry and poetic forms less foreign and more inviting. The structures and patterns no longer seem like alien “school stuff.” A combination, especially in this section, of poetry and lyrics really can facilitate the students’ acceptance of studying poetry and other types of writing.
Appreciation/Analysis
The first poem suggested for use here is almost concrete in form. Concrete poetry looks a great deal like or suggests by shape its subject matter. If compared with “A Poem on the Underground Wall,” students will see two fine examples of the way word choices or combinations make us
feel
rhythm, in this case the rhythm of trains. The poem, “Crossing” by Phillip Booth, should be accompanied by these questions.
Questions:
1.
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What do you think the author’s purpose for writing this poem was?
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2.
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Identify ten phrases which contribute to the rhythm. How do these phrases remind you of a train?
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3.
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Explain what you think “a fast-freight dream” means within the context of the poem.
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4.
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Compare the rhythm here with that in “‘A Poem on the Underground Wall.” Pick specific words the authors choose in each poem which contribute to the rhythm.
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5.
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Explain the theme of “A Poem on the Underground Wall.” How do you think the man in the song feels? If you have ever written grafitti, try to explain how you felt when you did it, and why you did it. If you can, write a cinquain explaining the experience.
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In order to further emphasize the fact that rhythm augments theme, the disco tune “Bad Girls” from Donna Summer’s album of the same title is suggested. Contrast this with the mournful rhythm of Gil Scott Heron’s “Pieces of A Man” (see Chapter 5, “Figurative Writing”) or the classic Langston Hughes jazz poem, “Weary Blues,” questions for which follow the questions for “Bad Girls.”
Questions for “Bad Girls”:
1.
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Why do you think the girls are called “bad” and “sad”? Try to find two other phrases in the song that make you feel the girls are sad.
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2.
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Now that you’ve read the lyrics, listen to the complete song. Write five strong describing words (adjectives) to explain how the beat makes you feel.
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3.
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What do you think the theme (main idea) of the song is? How does the rhythm (including all background sounds) help us to understand that theme?
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Questions for “Weary Blues”;
1.
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Langston Hughes (1902Ð1967) was probably the first poet to try to capture the rhythms of black music, especially jazz and blues, in poetry. Tell how the rhythm of this poem makes you feel. Should it be read slowly or quickly?
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2.
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Pick out specific words which help create the rhythm and mood.
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3.
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How is the rhythm in this poem different from that in “The Crossing”? “Bad Girls”? “A Poem on the Underground Wall”? “The Highwayman”?
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4.
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Can you identify any of the four rhyme schemes in the poem? Give examples.
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Note
An excellent reading of “The Weary Blues” can be found on the filmstrip “The Harlem Renaissance and Beyond,” Part I.
The second stanza of “My Papa’s Waltz” will further illustrate the importance of rhythm.
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We romped until the pans
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Slid from the kitchen shelf;
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My mother’s countenance
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Could not unfrown itself.
In the four lines above, we see the continuation of Roethke’s image. Here, the activity of the dance is sustained with the word “romped,” and the clause, “until the pans slid from ... ” Everything is in motion—except the frozen frown of the mother. The face, personified, has chosen to remain fixed. In contrast, the beat reflects both the title and complexity of the memory. Reading this part of the poem aloud reveals a very regular, “beatable” rhythm. This differs from the first verse, where the second and fourth lines carry the predominantly iambic beat to an anapestic conclusion. These longer lines are echoed again in the third stanza. The broken beat defies the discipline and grace of a real waltz. The staggered rhythm erases the possibility of the real dance, while the regularity of the second stanza supports the dancelike mood of the piece. Here, the “romping” is defined by the steady movement of the lines.